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Title: Bromide Printing and Enlarging

       A Practical Guide to the Making of Bromide Prints by Contact

       and Bromide Enlarging by Daylight and Artificial Light,

       With the Toning of Bromide Prints and Enlargements



Author: John A. Tennant



Release Date: February 18, 2008 [EBook #24637]



Language: English



Character set encoding: ASCII



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BROMIDE PRINTING AND ENLARGING



A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO THE MAKING OF BROMIDE PRINTS BY CONTACT AND BROMIDE

ENLARGING BY DAYLIGHT AND ARTIFICIAL LIGHT, WITH THE TONING OF BROMIDE

PRINTS AND ENLARGEMENTS





TENNANT AND WARD



NEW YORK





Copyright 1912 by



TENNANT AND WARD, NEW YORK









CONTENTS





Chapter I



VARIETIES OF BROMIDE PAPERS AND HOW TO CHOOSE AMONG THEM





Chapter II



THE QUESTION OF LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION





Chapter III



MAKING CONTACT PRINTS ON BROMIDE PAPER; PAPER NEGATIVES





Chapter IV



ENLARGING BY DAYLIGHT METHODS





Chapter V



ENLARGING BY ARTIFICIAL LIGHT





Chapter VI



DODGING, VIGNETTING, COMPOSITE PRINTING AND THE USE OF BOLTING SILK





Chapter VII



THE REDUCTION AND TONING OF BROMIDE PRINTS AND ENLARGEMENTS









CHAPTER I



VARIETIES OF BROMIDE PAPERS AND HOW TO CHOOSE AMONG THEM





What is bromide paper? It is simply paper coated with gelatino-bromide of

silver emulsion, similar to that which, when coated on glass or other

transparent support, forms the familiar dry-plate or film used in

negative-making. The emulsion used in making bromide paper, however, is

less rapid (less sensitive) than that used in the manufacture of plates or

films of ordinary rapidity; hence bromide paper may be manipulated with

more abundant light than would be safe with plates. It is used for making

prints by contact with a negative in the ordinary printing frame, and as

the simplest means for obtaining enlarged prints from small negatives.

Sometimes bromide paper is spoken of as a development paper, because the

picture-image does not print out during exposure, but requires to be

developed, as in negative-making. The preparation of the paper is beyond

the skill and equipment of the average photographer, but it may be readily

obtained from dealers in photographic supplies.



What are the practical advantages of bromide paper? In the first place, it

renders the photographer independent of daylight and weather as far as

making prints is concerned. It has excellent "keeping" qualities, _i.e._,

it does not spoil or deteriorate as readily as other printing papers, even

when stored without special care or precaution. Its manipulation is

extremely simple, and closely resembles the development of a negative. It

does not require a special sort of negative, but is adapted to give good

prints from negatives widely different in quality. It is obtainable in any

desired size, and with a great variety of surfaces, from extreme gloss to

that of rough drawing paper. It offers great latitude in exposure and

development, and yields, even in the hands of the novice, a greater

percentage of good prints than any other printing paper in the market. It

offers a range of tone from deepest black to the most delicate of

platinotype grays, which may be modified to give a fair variety of color

effects where this is desirable. It affords a simple means of making

enlargements without the necessity of an enlarged negative. It gives us a

ready means of producing many prints in a very short time, or, if desired,

we may make a proof or enlargement from the negative fresh from the

washing tray. And, finally, if we do our work faithfully and well, it will

give us permanent prints.



The bromide papers available in this country at present are confined to

those of the Eastman Kodak Company, the Defender Photo Supply Company and

J. L. Lewis, the last handling English papers only. Better papers could

not be desired. Broadly speaking, all bromide papers are made in a few

well-defined varieties; in considering the manipulation of the papers made

by a single firm, therefore, we practically cover all the papers in the

market. As a matter of convenience, then, we will glance over the

different varieties of bromide paper available, as represented by the

Eastman papers, with the understanding that what is said of any one

variety is generally applicable to papers of the same sort put out by

other manufacturers.



First we have the _Standard_ or ordinary bromide paper made for general

use. This comes in five different weights: _A_, a thin paper with smooth

surface, useful where detail is desirable; _B_, a heavier paper with

smooth surface, for large prints or for illustration purposes; and _C_, a

still heavier paper with a rough surface for broad effects and prints of

large size. _BB_, heavy smooth double weight; _CC_, heavy, rough, double

weight. Each of these varieties may be had in two grades, according to the

negative in hand or the effect desired in the print, viz.: _hard_, for use

with soft negatives where we desire to get vigor or contrast in the print,

and _soft_, for use with hard negatives where softness of effect is

desired in the print. For general use the _soft_ grade is preferable,

although it is advisable to have a supply of the _hard_ paper at hand as

useful in certain classes of work. The tones obtainable on the _Standard_

paper range to pure black, and are acceptable for ordinary purposes. For

pictorial work or special effects other papers are preferable.



_Platino-Bromide_ paper gives delicate platinotype tones, and where

negative, paper and manipulation are in harmony, the prints obtained on

this paper will be indistinguishable from good platinotypes in quality and

attractiveness. This paper comes in two weights, _Platino A_, a thin paper

suitable for small prints, and having a smooth surface useful for

detail-giving; and _Platino B_, a heavy paper with rough surface,

peculiarly suited for large contact prints or enlargements. Both varieties

are obtainable in _hard_ or _soft_ grades, characterized as above. _Matte

Enamel_, medium weight; _Enameled_, medium weight; _Velvet_, medium

weight.



_Royal Bromide_ is a capital paper in its proper place, _i.e._, for prints

not smaller than 8 x 10 inches, and then only when breadth of effect is

desired in the picture. It is a very heavy cream-colored paper, rough in

texture, and giving black tones by development, but designed to give sepia

or brown tones on a tinted ground by subsequent toning with a bath of hypo

and alum. This paper, also, may be had in two grades for _hard_ or _soft_

effects; it is further adapted for being printed on through silk or

bolting cloth, this modification adding to the effect of breadth

ordinarily given by the paper itself. I have seen prints on this paper

which were altogether pleasing, but subject and negative should be

carefully considered in its use. Rough Buff papers are very similar in

character. _Monox_ Bromide, made by the Defender Photo Supply Company, is

obtainable in six surfaces; No. 3, _Monox Rough_; No. 4, _Monox Gloss_;

No. 5, _Monox Matte_; No. 6, _Monox Lustre_; No. 7, _Monox Buff_, heavy

rough.



The Barnet bromide papers, comprising ten different varieties, differing

in weight and surface texture but very similar to the kinds already

described, are imported by J. L. Lewis, New York.



As a suggestion to the reader desiring to have at hand a stock of bromide

papers, I would advise _Platino A_, or a similar _soft_ paper for prints

under 5 x 7 inches; _Matte-Enamel_ for _soft_ effects, or a similar paper,

as an alternative; _Platino C_ and _Royal Bromide_ for _soft_ effects, or

similar papers, for prints 8 x 10 inches or larger, and for enlargements.

To these might be added a package of _Standard B_, and another of one of

the above varieties for _hard_ effects, to complete a supply for general

purposes. The beginner, however, will do well to avoid the indiscriminate

use of several varieties of paper, although he is advised to get

information of all the different varieties in the market. It is better to

select that variety which is best suited to the general character of one's

negatives and work, and to master that before changing to another. It is

true that an expert can get more good prints on bromide paper, from a

given number of bad negatives, than another expert can get with the same

negatives and any other printing paper; but it is also true that for the

best results on bromide paper the variety of paper used should be suitable

for the negative. It will be found, however, that this word "suitable"

covers, in bromide printing, a much wider range than is offered by many

printing papers. In fact there are only two sorts of negatives which will

not yield desirable prints on bromide paper: first, an exceedingly weak,

thin negative lacking in contrast and altogether flat; and second, a very

dense negative in which the contrasts are hopelessly emphatic. Even in

such cases, however, it may be possible to modify the negatives and so get

presentable prints.



The ideal negative for contact printing on bromide paper is one without

excessive contrasts on the one hand, and without excessive flatness on the

other. A moderately strong negative, such as will require from three to

five minutes in the sunlight with a print out paper, fairly describes it.

In other words, the negative should be fully exposed and so developed that

there is a fair amount of density in the shadows. I have never been able,

with bromide paper, to get the detail in the shadows of under-exposed

negatives, such as we see in a good print made on glossy printout paper.

For this reason the use of bromide papers with under-exposed negatives is

not advisable. But there are a great many negatives which, while

unsuitable as they come from the drying rack, can be easily adapted to the

process by slight modifications. A very dense negative, for instance, may

be reduced either with the ferricyanide of potash or persulphate of

ammonia reducer; and a thin negative with proper graduations can

frequently be intensified to advantage in the print. While, as has been

said, there is great latitude in the matter of the negative, this latitude

should only be availed of when necessary. Local reduction or

intensification of the negative is seldom necessary, as better results can

usually be obtained with bromide paper by dodging in the printing.









CHAPTER II



THE QUESTION OF LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION





Thus far we have gained a general understanding of the different papers

and the characteristics desirable in negatives. Before we take up the

actual manipulation of bromide paper there are a few elementary principles

bearing on the important detail of illumination which we must master.

These may necessitate a little thinking, but a practical grasp of them

will make our after-work much easier, and ensure that fairly good prints

from poor negatives will be the rule instead of the exception.



In the first place we have often read that a strong light overcomes

contrasts, while a weak light increases them. Yet how many of us realize

when we come to make prints by any process exactly what this means; in

other words, how many of us apply the rule in everyday practice? It is

very easy to see what is meant by the rule if we will take an ordinary

negative, such as a landscape with clear sky, and hold it first six inches

from a gas-flame and then six feet. It will be found in the first case

that the sky portion is translucent while the clear glass will, of course,

be clear; in the second the sky will be opaque and the clear glass still

clear. The contrasts have been rendered greater by removing the negative

further from the light-source. As this is true in the extreme case given,

so it is true in a smaller degree where the distances are only slightly

varied, as well as where we deal with the graded portions of the negative

instead of with only clear glass and the densest portions. It is this fact

that we utilize in bromide printing; and it is because we have such

unlimited control over the strength of our light that it is possible with

it to get equally good prints from a wide range of negatives. It is very

much simpler and more practicable to regulate the strength of the light by

increasing or diminishing its distance than by interposing sheets of

paper, ground glass, or opal, as is occasionally done with other

processes.



The necessity, however, for occasionally changing the strength of our

light in this manner may seem to introduce an element of uncertainty into

the problem of exposure; but there is another rule which brings it back

again to simplicity itself, and enables us to quickly calculate equivalent

exposures at varying distances from the light-source. This rule is: "The

intensity of illumination varies inversely as the square of the distance

from the source of light." For instance if a given negative requires five

seconds exposure at one foot from the light, it will have an equivalent

exposure if exposed for twenty seconds at two feet, the square of one

being one, and of two being four.



It remains then only to apply these two rules to our actual work with

bromide paper. The shadows in a certain negative will receive full

exposure, say, in eight seconds at one foot from the light; but the high

lights of the negative are so dense that no light will penetrate them at

that distance from the light in that length of time. Hence a stronger

light must be used, or the action of the same light continued for a longer

time; but the latter will not do since the effect would be to over-expose

the shadows. Hence, knowing that a strong light overcomes contrasts, we

move the negative to the distance of six inches, where the rule tells us

the equivalent exposure will be one-fourth that at twelve inches, in this

case two seconds. Here the shadows get no more light, but it is possible

that the high lights of the negative will be penetrated by reason of the

additional force of the light.



On the other hand we have a thin, flat negative requiring for the shadows

two seconds exposure at one foot from the light. Knowing that a weak light

increases contrasts we move the negative three feet from the light, and

instead of two, give eighteen seconds exposure, the rule telling us that

this is equivalent. Thus we are enabled to regulate the strength of our

light to suit the character of our negative. But a standard distance of

one foot will not suit with all kinds of lights or with all sizes of

negatives. If, for instance, our light is a Welsbach burner, giving an

intense and comparatively white light, we will find that a normal negative

will print too flat if exposed at one foot. In such a case two or even

three feet would be a better standard. Experience with our light will,

however, furnish the best standard, always taking a standard negative for

the tests.



[Illustration: Fig. 1]



The size of the negative also has its influence on the unit of exposure.

For instance, we may have a half-inch oil-burner, in which case we would

probably have to expose a standard negative at four inches in order to get

the proper contrasts. But this is out of the question with a negative of 5

x 7 or over, as a reference to the diagram, Fig. 1, will clearly show.

Here we find that while the centre of a negative is four inches from the

light the extreme edges will be over five inches from it, the rule as to

intensities telling us that the light at the edges will be only 16/25 of

that at the centre. This would result in a marked falling off of light at

the corners, and would necessitate a constant motion of the printing frame

throughout exposure, which is not wholly satisfactory. The remedy would be

to use a stronger light at a greater distance. But another reference to

Fig. 1 will show that if a 5 x 7 negative be held at seven inches from the

light the difference will be only as 49 is to 56, which can in practice be

disregarded, though it would be better to have it even less. Hence we see

that it is never safe to have our unit less than the base-line of our

plate, and it is better to have it even greater, as we will frequently be

obliged to halve the distance to overcome contrasts. It follows from this

that the larger our negatives the stronger must be our light.



Now all of these considerations may make very dry reading, but the reader

who has followed them closely will see how vital they are to successful

work. It should not be thought, however, that every exposure on bromide

paper must involve an arithmetical calculation. On the contrary, once the

proper distance from the light for the normal negative has been

ascertained, it will be found that nine negatives out of ten will require

no change in the distance from the source of light. This, of course,

presuming that we classify our negatives and enlarge from those of the

same quality at the same time.



One great objection to the use of bromide paper is that it must be handled

in a dark-room. But this objection is not as serious as it may seem. An

ordinary living room at night furnishes a delightful place in which to

make prints, if we handle our solutions with reasonable care. The ruby

glass can be removed from the dark-room lamp, and the orange glass used

alone. But in this case, as indeed with the ruby light, care must be taken

to guard against too much light. Development should be conducted at a

distance of several feet from the light, and when almost completed, the

tray can be brought close under the light to enable the worker to stop it

at exactly the right moment. Ordinary bromide paper is about as sensitive

as the process or slow dry plate or the average lantern-slide plate, and

requires as much care as either, but not nearly so much as the most rapid

dry plates. If fogging is noticed, of course additional precautions should

be taken at once.









CHAPTER III



CONTACT PRINTING ON BROMIDE PAPER



Nothing more than will be found in an ordinary dark-room will be found

necessary in bromide printing by contact, unless it be some arrangement

for determining readily the distance of the negative from the source of

light. For this purpose and with an oil-lamp, use a board a foot wide and

about three feet long placed on the developing bench against the base of

the dark-room lamp. It should be marked with black lines six inches apart.

See Fig. 2.



[Illustration: Fig. 2]



Greater uniformity in lighting will be gained if a piece of white

cardboard be placed immediately behind the flame. Some lamps have

reflectors, in which case the card is unnecessary, provided that they

reflect the light uniformly; otherwise such reflectors are worse than

useless.



Having arranged the needful apparatus to our satisfaction, the last

preparatory step before manipulation is the making up of a developer.

Almost any of the modern developers (pyro excepted) will give good results

with bromide paper. In every package of paper will be found the developers

advised by the manufacturer of the paper used. Invariably there is among

these a formula for ferrous oxalate developer. This is probably the best

of all developers for pure black tones, but I cannot advise the novice to

take it up in the early stages of his work with bromide paper.



When this developer is used an acid clearing bath is necessary, and this

invites complications which may be disastrous to the prints. When

experience has been gained, and a large number of prints are to be made at

one time, it will be found advantageous as working longer with greater

efficiency and more uniformity than some of the other developers. It is

troublesome to prepare and does not keep well, apart from which there is

the disadvantage that it does not permit of control in development in as

large a measure as other developers.



A reliable metol and hydroquinone formula is as follows: Thoroughly

dissolve metol, 1/4 ounce; hydroquinone, 1/4 ounce; in water, 80 ounces;

add sulphite of soda (cryst.), 4 ounces; and carbonate of soda (cryst.),

2-1/2 ounces. Bottled in 4-ounce vials and well corked, this developer

retains its working power indefinitely. For normal exposures I take 2

ounces of the above and add to it 2 ounces of water. This will suffice for

the development of three 8 x 10 sheets of paper, or their equivalent in

smaller sheets. It is not wise to attempt to make it do more, as greenish

tones will result. For the same reason, contrary to common opinion, I do

not advise the addition of potassium bromide to the developer. It does not

improve the developer, and may do harm.



An excellent developer which must be used freshly mixed, and may be made

up in a moment, is as follows: Take 1-1/2 ounces of a 25 per cent solution

of sodium sulphite; dry amidol, 30 grains; 5 to 10 drops of a 10 per cent

solution of potassium bromide, and dilute with 4-1/2 ounces of water. A

supply of new developer should be added as this is seen to become

exhausted.



Other developing formulae could be given, but these two will be found to

fill all requirements if properly compounded and intelligently used.



The greatest difficulty in developing bromide paper is to get rich black

tones when desired, but this can be completely overcome by using entirely

fresh developer from time to time, and never over-working the developer,

whatever it may be. As compared with the paper, developer is cheap, and it

is poor economy to save on the latter.



Except in rare instances the developer is better without any modifications

whatever. In case of over-exposure, either general or partial, the

developer after having been diluted as stated should be again diluted with

its bulk of water. This gives blacker tones and more depth and life to the

shadows. When through inadvertence we under-expose a print it may

frequently be saved after partial development in the weak solution by

flooding with a strong undiluted developer.



The temperature of the developer is of the greatest importance. In summer

the aim should be to keep it approximately at 65 degrees Fahr., in winter,

70 degrees, but it should never be allowed to go over the latter. This can

readily be accomplished by placing the graduate in a receptacle containing

ice-water in summer or hot water in winter.



The paper is first opened at a safe distance from the dark-room light, and

it is well at first to cut up one sheet into several slips to use as

test-strips. If any difficulty is found in determining which is the

sensitive side, it will be well to throw a piece of the paper on a plane

surface when it will be seen that it has a slight tendency to curl. The

concave is the sensitive side. Taking a standard negative we first take

one of the test-slips and place it upon the negative so that it covers a

portion containing both high lights and shadows. With an oil-lamp having a

1-inch burner, expose the test-strip behind the negative in the printing

frame at one foot for ten seconds. Close the lamp and flood the exposed

strip with the developer. The image should appear in a few seconds, and if

properly exposed development will be completed in from one to two minutes,

usually one. Rinse for a moment, and place the strip in a fixing bath made

up by dissolving 3 ounces of hypo in 16 ounces of water. After a few

moments examine the strip in full light, and see whether the contrasts are

right. If so, expose a full sheet of paper, this time rinsing the exposed

sheet before development to avoid the formation of air-bubbles. If the

contrasts are too great try a strip at six inches from the light and two

and a half seconds exposure. If still too great, use a stronger light or

try a longer exposure and use a very dilute developer. If still too great

the negative is hopeless and should be reduced unless dodging will help

it, as set out further on.



It will be noticed that this method calls for a one-minute development.

This is desirable for several reasons: first, because it gives a unit and

assists us in determining the correct exposure of other negatives, and

second, because it is a comparatively short development, and yet gives

sufficient time after the image has acquired the proper depth to pour off

the developer and flush with water, thus stopping development. It also

leaves sufficient margin in the event of over- or under-exposure. With one

minute as the unit, over-exposure will result in a fully developed image

in, say, thirty seconds. This print we could save; but if our unit were

thirty seconds it would be extremely difficult to save a print which had

completed development in fifteen seconds. The chances are that the

development would go on to a ruinous extent before we could pour off the

developer and flood the print, or that it would go on even after the water

was poured on it. Moreover, in case of under-exposure, two minutes would

not be so very tiresome, but four minutes would, besides which we would

risk straining the print by such prolonged development. While I am not

prepared to assert it as a rule, yet it has been my experience that the

time of development varies almost inversely with the length of exposure;

so that if the test-strip concludes development in half a minute with ten

seconds exposure, I give the next five seconds exposure in the expectation

that it will take a minute to develop. This assists greatly in lessening

the number of test-strips required to ascertain the correct exposure of a

given negative.



Should we wish to see a proof before the negative is dry, it is taken from

the fixing bath and well rinsed, though not necessarily thoroughly washed.

It is then placed face up in a tray of water, on which we place face down

a sheet of bromide paper. The two are removed together and squeezed

lightly into contact to remove air bubbles. The back of the negative is

then wiped to remove superfluous water, and an exposure of several times

the normal given, preferably the normal exposure at half the standard

distance from the light. The paper is then removed and developed as usual.

In this way it is possible to show a print in fifteen or twenty minutes

after the exposure of the plate was made.



The purpose of the rinsing before development is to avoid the possibility

of air-bells. The paper should be rinsed in cold water, as warmish water

will cause air-bells instead of preventing them. This rinsing can be

dispensed with if thought desirable. The rinsing after development is for

the purpose of stopping development immediately, and also in order that

the prints may not go into the fixing bath full of developer, as staining

would be likely to result in such case. With the iron oxalate developer an

acid rinsing bath is necessary, but it is not necessary with any of the

other developers.



The fixing is important, as upon this depends in a large measure the

permanence of the prints. The bath should be freshly made up, 3 ounces of

hyposulphite of soda to 16 ounces of water. Prints are placed in this bath

face down, and one under, instead of on top of another. The tray should be

occasionally rocked. With a fresh bath prints will fix in ten minutes, but

where many prints are made at one time it will be well to use a second

fixing bath. The emulsion of an unfixed print will appear a yellowish

tinge in the unfixed portions when examined by transmitted light; but this

is not an easy or certain test. It is better to make absolutely certain of

thorough fixing by continued immersion, occasional rocking and, where many

prints are made, a second bath. The fixing bath should not be allowed to

get too warm in hot weather. Blistering, staining and frilling will result

in such a case, and I have known a print which was left in a warm fixing

bath for an hour or more to be reduced beyond redemption. With freshly

made hypo baths at a suitable temperature there is absolutely no danger of

the paper frilling or blistering.



The final washing must be thorough, as the hypo is difficult to eliminate

from both the emulsion and the paper. Care must be taken to see that the

prints are well separated while washing. This ensures uniform washing.



It frequently happens that a negative may require more or less dodging in

printing. With bromide paper this is particularly easy. We will take the

simple case of a negative with dense sky which will not print out in the

ordinary way. All that we need in this case is a piece of paper cut

roughly to the sky line and kept moving during part of the exposure over

the part which is to be held back. If necessary, cut down the light in

order to prolong the exposure, or expose at a greater distance from the

light. One or more test-strips will be required for this purpose in order

to ascertain the relative times of exposure. A modification of this method

is when a small portion of the negative only needs extra printing--a face

or hand for instance. Here we take a piece of paper a little larger than

the negative and cut a small hole in it, moving it in front of the light

so as to throw the latter only upon the portions needing the extra

printing. Still another modification is where a portion only needs holding

back. Here we use a small piece of paper or cardboard stuck on a knitting

needle, moving the latter so that it will not intercept the light too long

at one place.



In all these and similar instances which will occur to the reader, the

dodging should be done during the first part of the exposure. The

subsequent exposure seems to obliterate traces of such dodging better than

when it is done at the end of the exposure, just as in cloud-printing

better results are achieved by printing the sky first and the foreground

afterward.



It is quite possible to make bromide negatives in the camera. They have

their advantages in classes of work not requiring the finest definition,

are much lighter, cheaper, more easily stored and less liable to breakage

or other mishaps. They are best made on a thin, smooth paper, a _soft_

paper being better than the _hard_. They are placed in the plate-holder by

means of the ordinary cut film holder. The exposure required is

ascertained by a trial or two, but roughly speaking is about one-twentieth

that of a rapid plate. After development in the usual way--it being

carried only a little further than usual--and after fixing, washing and

drying, the paper negative can be spotted or retouched, after which it is

waxed.









CHAPTER IV



ENLARGING--DAYLIGHT METHODS





In taking up enlarging a full knowledge of what has been said as to the

manipulation of bromide paper will be necessary, as the principles

governing exposure apply here as in contact printing, errors being even

more serious, owing to the greater waste of material.



For the illuminant used in enlarging, we may employ either daylight or

artificial light. The former is cheap, but variable; the first cost of the

latter is quite a little sum, but the light is uniform. A daylight

enlarging apparatus can be made for a dollar or two, and hence is within

the reach of all; and if the process be given up, the loss is not serious.



If the cost is of little or no moment, very serviceable enlarging cameras

can be bought for about twenty-five dollars. Such a camera is adapted for

reducing as well as enlarging, and so will be found useful for lantern

slide making, copying, etc. As a matter of fact, few things are as useful

to the amateur as a good enlarging outfit.



We will first consider enlarging by daylight with home-made apparatus. For

this purpose a room with at least one window will be needed. It should

preferably be convenient to the dark-room. If the window of this room

commands a view unobstructed by buildings, trees or the like, so much the

better. I personally prefer a south light. With this one can get soft

enlargements from the most contrasty negatives, while by shielding the

negatives from the direct rays of the sun we can work from negatives which

are quite flat and lacking in contrasts.



[Illustration: Fig. 3]



But whatever the room chosen, all windows but the one at which we are to

work must be blocked up. This can be done by heavy dark curtains, or by

specially constructed frames covered with light-tight material and made to

fit closely in the windows. If there are any transoms these should

likewise be covered. White light entering under the doors can be shut out

by placing a rug along the bottom of the door. Care must be taken that the

window-frames fit closely, as the light from openings at the windows would

soon fog a sheet of bromide paper if it fell upon it even for a few

moments.



[Illustration: Fig. 4]



Assuming that the room chosen can be made practically light-tight, we will

need some arrangement to hold the negative. The details of a box for this

purpose can best be shown by a diagram (Fig. 3). ABCD is a strong and

neatly made box open at both ends, and about two inches larger each way

than the largest negative from which enlargements are to be made. E

represents a section of a board which forms part of a window frame, a

general view of which is given in Fig. 4. Reverting to Fig. 3, F is an

opening cut in the side of the negative box two inches or a little less

from the back of the box, AD, and wide enough to admit the free passage of

a negative in a kit or other holder. On the inside of the box are tacked

strips, GGGG, to serve as a guide to the kit when placing it in the box.

An opening similar to F should be made in the other side of the box to

permit lateral adjustments when we come to use the apparatus, besides

enabling us to put the negative in or withdraw it from either side. A

convenient modification of the strips, G, is found by placing the front

ones a short distance further forward, to wit, toward BC, as they are

shown in the cut (Fig. 3), and tacking to them a piece of watch spring, H,

this then serving both as a guide and as a means of pressing the kit or

negative holder against the other strips, GG (Fig. 5).



[Illustration: Fig. 5]



J is a sheet of ground-glass, which is tacked over the opening when the

box is firmly set in the board, E. It is well to have this ground-glass

fixed in place so that it can be readily removed if desired.



[Illustration: Fig. 6]



The necessity for having the box at least two inches larger each way than

the largest negative from which enlargements are to be made is shown in

Fig. 6. Here AB represents the negative in place, CA, DB and EG represent

rays of light entering the box. It will be seen that the rays CA and DB

strike the ground-glass at an angle, but nevertheless at an angle which

results in their passing through it in a considerable degree. They strike

the negative AB, but if the negative were the full size of the box, to wit

FG, it will be seen that while the section AB would be fully lighted, the

sections AF and BG would receive no oblique rays at all, and hence the

negative would not be even approximately uniformly lighted. This point is

too often overlooked in the construction of apparatus of this character,

but is necessary in all cases of daylight enlarging and especially when

direct sunlight is used. Now with the negative box in place, some

arrangement must be made for holding the lens, which can be the lens used

for making the negative. This for enlargements of a fixed size from

negatives of a given size can be accomplished by simply extending the

section BGGC Fig. 3, to a proper distance and placing the lens in the end

of it; but this permits too little opportunity for adjustments and is not

advisable. A double box, one sliding within the other, would be better,

but still not quite satisfactory. It is far better to adapt one's camera

to the apparatus, and this can always be done; it being very simple with a

reversible back camera, which can be backed right up to the opening, and

more difficult but always possible with others. Fig. 7 shows the entire

apparatus in place, and the manner in which it is used. AB is the window

board, C is the negative box, D is the camera adjusted to the latter, E is

the enlarging screen on an easel to hold the bromide paper, and F is the

reflector. The screen on the easel can be made either to rest on the floor

or on a table. It can be made to run on a track or otherwise, and it can

also be made so as to admit of either vertical or lateral adjustment or

both, or it can be nothing more than an ordinary box set on a table. But

however constructed it must be considerably larger than the largest sheet

of bromide paper which is to be used, thus allowing for nearly all

necessary adjustments of the paper. It is preferably covered with white

paper or fine blotter to aid in focusing. The reflector F is considerably

larger than the negative-box, and adjusted at an angle which will reflect

the light from the sky or sun evenly upon the ground glass. It is best

covered with good white blotting paper. G is a hood which I have found

useful in sunlight enlarging, especially in summer when the sun is almost

overhead. It is placed on the outside of the window-frame, some distance

above the ground-glass, and shields the latter from the direct rays of the

sun, which would otherwise cause uneven illumination owing to their too

great obliquity. The direct sun on the white reflector will give a light

of high intensity. In winter, however, when the sun is low, it will fall

directly on the ground-glass, and this, if the negative box be constructed

as advised, is not objectionable, but on the contrary an advantage. In

Fig. 4 the opening, FGHI, represents a sheet of ruby glass, and can be

screened while focusing if found to interfere with the worker's

convenience in that operation.



[Illustration: Fig. 7]



The apparatus as sketched will suffice for all ordinary work.

Modifications of it will depend upon the ingenuity of the man who attempts

to design or construct one. It should be noted that the distance of the

ground-glass from the negative has its influence in the strength of the

light, and it is better to have this distance not over two inches. If less

than one inch, however, the diffusion of light is not so good. When the

light is weak the ground-glass can be removed entirely; the negative will

thus be viewed directly against the white reflector. Very strong negatives

giving undue contrasts may also be dealt with in this way. Or, if the

light is too strong for flat negatives, the reflector can be removed

entirely, or to the same end a sheet of yellow glass can be substituted

for the ground-glass, thus increasing contrasts. In fact, a very useful

and easily arranged modification of the negative-box consists of an

opening in the top of the box inside the room through which can be dropped

an extra sheet of ground-glass or opal to cut down the light, or of yellow

glass to increase contrast. This opening should be at the point K, Fig. 3.



I have referred to a kit as being the proper arrangement for holding the

negative. This, after much tribulation in working with home-made

contrivances, I have found to be the best arrangement. They come a size or

two larger than the negative with which they are to be used, and can

easily be cut down to the proper dimensions. With it, also, other kits to

hold smaller negatives can readily be used. It is also simple with them to

fasten the negatives in place. If they extend beyond the box on either

side so much the better; greater lateral adjustment can then be made. The

negative box, Fig. 3, is best painted dead black inside in the section

GBCG, and white in the section AGGD. The reasons for this will be obvious

at a glance.



In enlarging from films it is well to place them between two sheets of

glass of proper size, and fasten the whole in the kit or negative-holder.

For this purpose use thin glass without flaws or scratches. If the films

are smaller than the opening in the kit, it is well to paste a black mat

on one of the glasses, when, after proper adjustment, the film will remain

in place between the two glasses with very little pressure.



Enlarged negatives are very easily made with the apparatus described. A

contact positive can be made, preferably on carbon transparency tissue,

and from this the enlargement made, or an enlarged positive made first,

and from this a contact negative. The latter plan is preferable, since it

admits of retouching on both positive and negative. Slow plates should be

used throughout. For those who do not care to go to the expense of

experimenting with large plates, I would suggest that good contact

positives be first made and from these negatives on bromide paper,

_Standard A_, _soft_. These negatives are treated as already described.

The best positive for this purpose is a thin one with full gradations of

tone from clear high light to deep shadow, without veil or fog, but free

from any suspicion of flatness.









CHAPTER V



ENLARGING BY ARTIFICIAL LIGHT





The apparatus for enlarging with artificial light is, as has been stated,

more expensive than that for use with daylight. The negative box and

screen, however, remain as given. But we need in addition two extra

pieces, a light-box and a pair of condensing lenses.



The form of light-box presupposes the choice of illuminant, and in this

there is a wide range. Suffice it to say that a kerosene lamp with one or

more one-and-a-half inch burners will be found suitable for very small

work or weak negatives. For larger work or stronger negatives a stronger

light will be needed.



Of these, the first in point of strength is the arc-light, which is too

strong for ordinary negatives to be enlarged not more than fourfold on

ordinary bromide paper. Used with any of the slower papers it will be

found very serviceable and satisfactory. Next comes the lime-light, which

has pretty much the same advantages and disadvantages. After these come

acetylene, a gas giving an intense light of high actinic power. This is

within the reach of nearly all, as a first-class generator costs only

about twelve dollars, and the uses of the gas are manifold. The same

generators and burners can be used with a projecting lantern and will be

found far more satisfactory than oil. Acetylene burners can be had in

various sizes, ranging in power from thirty to several hundred

candle-power. The carbide from which the gas is generated is not expensive

and costs only a few cents each time the machine is loaded. By an

adjustment attached to the generator the gas is kept at a constant

pressure, and hence the light is unusually steady. All in all this light

has many advantages. After it in strength comes the Welsbach burner,

suitable for those having gas in the house. After this comes the ordinary

gas-burner, and then oil. The reader, knowing now what will be required of

his light, can take his choice.



Perhaps the simplest form of light-box is where the light is placed in one

room and the enlarging done in an adjoining one, the light being admitted

through a suitable opening. This prevents the possibility of stray light

reaching the paper and is productive of no additional heat in a room

presumably already hot enough.



If this is not feasible a light-box must be constructed. As these vary so

much in material and design, and must be altered with different forms of

light in use, I will merely state the requirements. First of these is that

it must be light-tight, and second, that it must have adequate ventilation

and be fire-proof. Following these in importance, there should be a simple

arrangement for looking at the light from time to time to see that it is

burning properly and some means for readily attending to it if it is not.



Having the light-box, the burners must be placed in it properly. Here the

shortest way out of the difficulty is to go to an expert. If electricity

is used go to an electrical supply house; if gas, go to a gas-fitter. As

will be seen later the flame itself must be placed in a certain relation

to other portions of the apparatus, and provision must be made

accordingly.



In looking over the magazines and annuals we will now and then see some

new method given for illuminating evenly the back of a negative in

enlarging or reduction. The most of these the writer has tried, but he has

never found one of them which could be relied upon to give even reasonable

satisfaction. If the light is apparently evenly diffused it is too weak.

If strong enough it is not evenly diffused. Hence I will recommend nothing

short of a pair of condensing lenses, as these have been proved by

experience to be satisfactory in every respect if properly handled and

cared for. The diameter of these must be slightly greater than the

diagonal of the largest negative from which enlargements are to be made.

These can be bought in pairs, mounted or unmounted, at about the following

prices:



  ---------+-----------------+----------------+------------------

  Diameter | Focus           | Pair of Lenses | Per Single Lens

  Inches   | Inches          | Mounted        | Unmounted

  ---------+-----------------+----------------+------------------

    4      |  5-1/2 or 6-1/2 |   $ 4.00       |  $ 1.25

    4-1/2  |  5-1/2 or 6-1/2 |     6.00       |    1.50

    5      |  6-1/2          |     7.50       |    1.75

    6      |  8              |    12.00       |    3.00

    8      | 12              |    32.00       |    7.50

    9      | 14              |    40.00       |   10.00

  ---------+-----------------+----------------+------------------



The prices asked for condensers vary considerably in different

price-lists. They can often be had at second-hand at a decided saving of

expense.



If it is desired to save the additional cost of the mounted condensing

lenses, they can be comparatively easily mounted by anyone at all familiar

with tools in the following manner:



A piece of quarter-inch pine or poplar is cut to a square about an inch

larger than the diameter of the lenses. In the center of this is sawed out

a circular opening the exact size of the lens. In another board of the

same dimensions is cut a circle a quarter of an inch less in diameter.

These boards are placed together with the grain running in opposite

directions, to prevent warping, and the lens kept in place by a wire bent

in a circle and clamped in place so as to hold the lens, or other similar

arrangement. See Fig. 8. The other lens is mounted in the same way. The

two are mounted with their convex sides facing each other and a slight

distance apart. It is better to place between them a thin sheet of finely

ground glass, as this overcomes the bad effects of slight flaws in the

lenses, which are not uncommon. The combination is then boxed up.



[Illustration: Fig. 8]



Having now our light-box, condensers, negative box, camera and screen,

they are next arranged in the order shown by Fig. 9. A long table

especially constructed for the purpose makes the best base for this

purpose.



In putting the apparatus together there are several points to be noticed.

First, the planes of the lenses, negative, projecting lenses and screen

must all be parallel; second, the centers of all these should be in a

single straight line, and third, either the light or the condensers should

be so mounted as to easily slide backward or forward, since every time the

projecting lens is racked backward or forward it necessitates a

corresponding motion of the condensers to or from the light.



[Illustration: Fig. 9]



In constructing the apparatus, for use with condensers and artificial

light, the same provision should be made in the negative box for inserting

a piece of colored or ground glass as was made in the daylight apparatus.

When the diameter of the condensers is but little greater than the

diagonal of the negative it will be necessary to have the latter quite

close to the former, as the cone of light from the condensers has its apex

at the lens, and hence if the negative in such a case is at a distance

from the condensers the corners will receive no light. Reference to Fig. 9

will show this plainly. For this and other reasons it is always best to

have the condensers of ample size for a given negative. In fact, before

beginning to make enlargements the worker should work with one good

negative until he finds out exactly what light-intensity is best suited to

it. This will then serve as a standard for all other negatives of the same

general grade, and variations of the light can be made as required for

particular negatives, or where the extent of enlargement is materially

changed for various purposes.



In using the daylight apparatus, which we will now consider, the negative

is placed in the holder opposite the center of the ground-glass, upside

down and facing into the work room. The room is darkened and lens

uncapped. An image more or less blurred will appear on the screen. If the

enlarged picture is to be only slightly larger than the negative, the lens

must be racked out until its distance from the negative is but little less

than its distance from the screen. To make the enlargement greater we

simply rack back the lens and move the screen further off. There are

tables which show exactly the distance which the lens must be from the

negative and screen in order to get an enlargement of a given size: The

table here inserted covers the ordinary requirements and may be of service

in constructing the apparatus:



  TIMES OF ENLARGEMENT



  Total distances from the negative, in inches.



  -------------+---------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------

   Times of    |       2       |        3        |        4        |        6

   Enlargement |               |                 |                 |

  -------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------

   Focus of    | To    | To    | To     | To     | To     | To     | To     | To

   Lens        | Easel | Lens  | Easel  | Lens   | Easel  | Lens   | Easel  | Lens

  -------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------

    6 inches   | 27    |  9    | 32     |  8     | 37-1/2 |  7-1/2 | 49     |  7

    8   "      | 36    | 12    | 42-2/3 | 10-2/3 | 50     | 10     | 65-1/3 |  9-1/3

   10   "      | 45    | 15    | 53-1/3 | 13-1/3 | 62-1/2 | 12-1/2 | 81-2/3 | 11-2/3

   12   "      | 54    | 18    | 64     | 16     | 75     | 15     | 98     | 14

  -------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------



A table for enlargements of from one to twenty-five times, with lenses

varying in focal length from three to nine inches is here given.



  ENLARGEMENTS



  _From the British Journal of Photography Almanac._



  +----------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+

  | Focus of |                                                                       |

  | Lens     |                Times of Enlargement and Reduction                     |

  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+

  | Inches   | 1    | 2      | 3      | 4      | 5      | 6       | 7      | 8       |

  |          | inch | inches | inches | inches | inches | inches  | inches | inches  |

  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+

  | 3        |  6   | 9      | 12     | 15     | 18     | 21      | 24     | 27      |

  |          |  6   | 4-1/2  |  4     |  3-3/4 |  3-3/5 |  3-1/2  |  3-3/7 |  3-3/8  |

  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+

  | 3-1/2    |  7   | 10-1/2 | 14     | 17-1/2 | 21     | 24-1/2  | 28     | 31-1/2  |

  |          |  7   | 5-1/4  |  4-2/3 |  4-3/4 |  4-1/5 |  4-1/12 |  4     |  3-9/10 |

  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+

  | 4        |  8   | 12     | 16     | 20     | 24     | 28      | 32     | 36      |

  |          |  8   |  6     |  5-1/3 |  5     |  4-4/5 |  4-2/3  |  4-4/7 |  4-1/2  |

  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+

  | 4-1/2    |  9   | 13-1/2 | 18     | 22-1/2 | 27     | 31-1/2  | 36     | 40-1/2  |

  |          |  9   |  6-3/4 |  6     |  5-3/5 |  5-2/5 |  5-1/4  |  5-1/7 |  5-1/16 |

  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+

  | 5        | 10   | 15     | 20     | 25     | 30     | 35      | 40     | 45      |

  |          | 10   |  7-1/2 |  6-2/3 |  6-1/4 |  6     |  5-5/6  |  5-5/7 |  5-5/8  |

  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+

  | 5-1/2    | 11   | 16-1/2 | 22     | 27-1/2 | 33     | 38-1/2  | 44     | 49-1/2  |

  |          | 11   |  8-1/4 |  7-1/3 |  6-4/5 |  6-1/2 |  6-5/12 |  6-2/7 |  6-3/10 |

  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+

  | 6        | 12   | 18     | 24     | 30     | 36     | 42      | 48     | 54      |

  |          | 12   |  9     |  8     |  7-1/2 |  7-1/5 |  7      |  6-6/7 |  6-3/4  |

  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+

  | 7        | 14   | 21     | 28     | 35     | 42     | 49      | 56     | 63      |

  |          | 14   | 10-1/2 |  9-1/3 |  8-3/4 |  8-2/5 | 8-1/6   |  8     |  7-7/8  |

  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+

  | 8        | 16   | 24     | 32     | 40     | 48     | 56      | 64     | 72      |

  |          | 16   | 12     | 10-2/3 | 10     |  9-3/5 |  9-1/3  |  9-1/7 |  9      |

  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+

  | 9        | 18   | 27     | 36     | 45     | 54     | 63      | 72     | 81      |

  |          | 18   | 13-1/2 | 12     | 11-1/4 | 10-4/5 | 10-1/2  | 10-2/7 | 10-1/8  |

  +----------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+



      The object of this table is to enable any manipulator who is about

      to enlarge (or reduce) a copy any given number of times to do so

      without troublesome calculation. It is assumed that the photographer

      knows exactly what the focus of his lens is, and that he is able to

      measure accurately from its optical center. The use of the table

      will be seen from the following illustration: A photographer has a

      _carte_ to enlarge to four times its size, and the lens he intends

      employing is one of 6 inches equivalent focus. He must therefore

      look for 4 on the upper horizontal line and for 6 in the first

      vertical column, and carry his eye to where these two join, which

      will be at 30-7-1/2. The greater of these is the distance the

      sensitive plate must be from the center of the lens; and the lesser,

      the distance of the picture to be copied.



In practice it is convenient, after having once found the focus for a

given enlargement from a given negative with the lens in use, to mark on

the base of the apparatus the point to which the lens has been extended.

Then in making future enlargements of the same size, it is only necessary

to set the lens at that point and move the easel backward or forward until

an approximate focus is obtained, when the image will be of the proper

size on the screen.



As an approximate guide it is sufficient to know that the nearer the lens

is to the negative the greater will be the enlargement, as may be seen in

Fig. 7. If a piece of thin cardboard, or a sheet of paper cut to the exact

size of the enlargement desired, is placed upon the easel-screen, little

difficulty will be experienced in getting an enlarged image of the proper

size and correctly focused.



It is advisable to focus the enlargement with the largest aperture of the

lens. If the lens, when working at its largest aperture, covers the plate

from which the enlargement is being made, it will give proper definition

over the enlargement. With a lens of the better sort, of course, the

definition will be equally good whether a large or small aperture is used;

but with a low-priced lens it is better to stop down to No. 8 (f/11.3) or

No. 16 (f/16), to avoid spherical aberration. Stopping the lens down

increases the time of exposure, and enables one to have greater control

over the operation of exposing the paper, permitting time to shade or

locally increase the exposure at any portion of the image. This is

sometimes useful, but as a general thing stopping the lens down is not

advisable, as interfering with one's judgment in calculating exposures for

various negatives. Having secured the image correct in size and focus,

place thumb-tacks at all four sides of the sheet of paper or card used to

focus the image. These will serve as a guide to the placing of the

sensitive paper. Adjust the lens stop as desired and cap the lens, leaving

the room totally dark save for such safe light as we may have for working.

Place the bromide paper on the screen, using the thumb-tacks as a guide to

the correct position in this.



In making his first enlargements, the beginner should avail himself of the

help of test-strips. These should be about one inch wide and the length of

the paper. The exposure depends on a number of factors, among which are

light, negative, focal length of lens, size of enlargement, stops,

sensitiveness of paper, developer, temperature of developer, and length of

development. The first experiment had best, therefore, be made on a purely

arbitrary basis, for which we will take ten seconds.



Pinning a test-strip on the screen, we uncap the lens and with a piece of

cardboard shade two-thirds of the strip during five seconds; move the

cardboard, and give the next section five seconds making ten for the

first; then remove the cardboard entirely and give five seconds more,

making fifteen for the first, ten for the second, and five for the third.

Now develop the strip. If the fifteen seconds portion finishes development

in less than one minute, and the ten takes approximately a minute, we will

know that our basis was correct. But if all three were over-exposed or

under-exposed, as shown by one minute's development, we can expose the

next test-strip accordingly.



In determining the correct exposure, the method already set forth for

contact exposures is a reasonably good one. If the paper with a given

exposure takes half the proper time to develop, halve the next exposure;

if double the time, or more, double it. More could be said on the subject

of exposure, and possibly to advantage; for instance, there are tables

showing the exact relation of exposure to the number of times of

enlargement, but complicated calculations in the dark-room are troublesome

and a test-strip is simpler. After a while one gets the ability to

determine the approximate exposure required by looking at the enlarged

image on the screen, correcting slight errors by length of development,

and greater ones by modifying the developer by diluting or strengthening.



It should be remembered, however, that in judging exposure by reference to

the screen, we must consider the high lights, as well as the shadows. It

is in the high lights that we need the detail if we are to have soft

pictures. If this detail in the high lights is plentiful and clear we may

know that our light is strong enough for a very short exposure. If it is

very faint, we will have to give a long exposure and use diluted developer

to save the over-exposed shadows. On the other hand, if the image on the

screen is a flat one, we may know that our light is too strong for the

negative, and it must be modified by removing the reflector or by

interposing ground or yellow glass; and if neither of these suffice, we

can simply lay the negative aside for a dark day when the light will be

very much weaker. Frequently all necessary contrasts can be obtained by

the use of the _hard_ paper before referred to. As under-exposure tends to

increase contrasts, we should also give the minimum exposure in the case

of flat negatives, abandoning for a time our standard one-minute

development. As will be seen by this time, there are many wrinkles about

using bromide paper, and it will be found that new ones appear at every

_seance_ in the enlarging room.



But why is it that so many of our enlargements are black in the shadows

and chalky in the high lights? Why, simply because our light is too weak

for our negative. We forget that if we cannot modify our negative we must

modify our light. It is this characteristic of the bromide enlargement

which has prevented the process from enjoying the popularity it deserves.

And I sometimes wonder whether this chalkiness is due to the use of the

north light!









CHAPTER VI



DODGING, VIGNETTING, COMPOSITE PRINTING AND THE USE OF BOLTING SILK





Of all printing processes, bromide enlarging offers the best opportunities

for successful dodging and modification. We can cut our light down and

take all the time we want, or we can take as little time as we want. A

hand, a finger, a slip of paper, or anything within reach, will suffice to

shade the light just as we want it. In this connection it is well to

always hold the shade nearer the lens than the easel, as greater diffusion

results and there is less danger of sharp lines. In shading a foreground

to bring up a dense sky, first make a test-strip or two, noting how long

the shading is carried on and how long the light is allowed to act on the

whole. If the sky is then over- or under-printed we can modify it in the

enlargement proper.



The best arrangement for vignetting in enlarging is a piece of cardboard

the size of the negative, with an opening cut out at the proper place and

about the size of the portion of the negative to be vignetted. This is

held near the lens and moved backward and forward between the latter and

the screen, the opening showing larger as we near the lens and smaller as

we recede from it. Very tasteful vignettes can be made in this way. A

favorite method of the writer's is to use a sheet of bromide paper,

preferably that with rough surface, and print on it a small vignette of a

portion of a negative. These sheets being of a uniform size are then bound

in book form, and make very attractive souvenirs. Variety can be added to

the collection by printing some of the pictures through a mat fastened on

the screen over the paper, when, of course, they are bounded by straight,

sharp lines.



Double printing in enlarging is not at all difficult. Assuming that

test-strips have been made determining the proper exposure for each

negative, I will briefly outline the process. Taking a landscape negative

with clear sky in which we wish to print clouds, we first tack on the

screen a sheet of paper the size of our bromide, and after properly

adjusting and focusing it, trace with a pencil the outline of the skyline.

We then remove the foreground negative and, after tracing, cut out a mask

conforming to the size and shape of the foreground, cutting away the sky.

We now put in the box the sky negative, and readjust our sheet of paper

until after proper focusing the desired portion of the sky occupies the

portion reserved for it, leaving the thumb-tacks as a guide when we put

our bromide on the screen. Now using the sheet of paper as a guide, place

on the edges of the bromide paper two little pencil marks to show how far

we shall shade the lower portion of the paper. Our mask being the size of

the foreground negative, it is now only necessary to hold it at the proper

distance from the lens to have its edge conform to the sky-line when

enlarged. But this would leave a sharp line if held exactly at that point,

so using the pencil marks on the margin as a guide, we slowly raise and

lower the mask very slightly and just sufficient to cause an agreeable

blending of the sky into nothing. The proper exposure given, we cap the

lens, remove the paper and insert the foreground negative. Now we must

again adjust our sheet of plain paper until the sky line marked on it

coincides with the sky-line on the screen, leaving thumb-tacks as usual.

Registry being thus secured, we simply expose the foreground and develop

the composite print.



Needless to say, our clouds must be lighted from the same general

direction as the landscape. But if in the negative they are not so lighted

it can be reversed in the holder and will then print properly. In almost

all cloud printing the tendency is to give undue prominence to the clouds

by printing the sky to too deep a tone. This, besides making the blending

very noticeable at the horizon, results in unnatural effects and should be

avoided.



If the sky portion of the landscape negative is thin, it might print

slightly and spoil the effect of the clouds. This can be overcome by using

a weaker light in enlarging. Where this is not desirable, a mask can be

cut for the sky portion and used slightly while the foreground is being

printed. By using it a very little during the first part of the exposure

the tint will be overcome, while objects projecting above the horizon will

be sufficiently printed. It will be found easier, no doubt, to print the

landscape first and sky afterwards. But this does not result in good work.

The landscape should invariably be printed after the sky portion.



Bolting silk enlargements were for a time very popular. Sometimes they

were artistic. Then every-one began making them, too often from unsuitable

negatives, and they fell into disrepute. This method of enlarging is, in

fact, suitable for very few negatives and only where broad effects of

light and shade are desired. To cut up a spotty negative with a succession

of lines does not necessarily give a broad effect in the picture. But for

softening down heavy masses of shadows, and blending them harmoniously

with masses of light or half light, the process is without an equal. The

bolting silk can be bought by the square yard of dealers in photographic

supplies, and should be stretched evenly over a frame made of quarter- and

half-inch wood, being tacked between the two strips. This frame can be

easily adjusted to fit over the paper on the screen. By using the side,

bringing the cloth within a quarter of an inch of the paper, the lines are

more evident, which is not so objectionable for very large work. But for

the softest effects, reverse the frame and use it at half an inch from the

paper. In this way we get a soft diffusion of the lines and much greater

general softness. It should never be used nearer than a quarter of an

inch, as the lines then become too evident, and hence fail in the effect

desired. The bolting silk comes in three grades, fine, medium and coarse.

The medium is the best for general work. It should not, however, be used

for sizes under 8 x 10. The interposition of the cloth requires about

one-half additional exposure. Focusing, of course, must be done without

the frame in place. The bolting silk should only be used with paper which

is to be toned to some color other than black, as there is something

incongruous in its use with black tones.



Few branches of photographic work, outside of negative-making, are as

fascinatingly interesting as the making of enlarged prints on bromide

paper from small negatives. Every amateur has negatives worthy of

enlargement in his collection, and the process is so simple as to be

within the capacity of the amateur who is still in his first year in

photography. Its practice will stimulate his interest and help him in all

his other photographic work. Especially will it help him in

picture-making, the merits and defects of composition being a hundred fold

more plainly evident in an enlargement than in the small print from the

hand-camera negative. Moreover, in its essentials, bromide enlarging calls

for no special equipment other than the ordinary hand- or view-camera, and

a dark-room or other convenient work-room from which all "white light" can

be excluded on occasion.









CHAPTER VII



THE REDUCTION AND TONING OF BROMIDE PRINTS





The subsequent manipulations with bromide paper do not differ materially

from those with negatives. The support being paper of course makes some

difference and the fact that while in the negative we aim to get printing

density and printing color only, in the positive we aim to please the eye,

makes another. But generally speaking, it may be said that whatever we can

do with the negative we can do with bromide paper, that is, in so far as

the emulsion itself is concerned.



The first operation to be taken up is the reduction of prints which are

too dark. This can best be effected just after the prints come from the

hypo. A few grains of red prussiate of potash are dissolved in a suitable

quantity of water, the latter being barely tinged, not of a strong yellow

color. If the print is too dense throughout, it can be immersed without

previous washing in this solution. Reduction should take place gradually,

and this is best accomplished with a weak reducer. If the tray be rocked

gently the reduction will be quite uniform. If, however, only a portion of

the print needs reduction, this can be effected by applying the

ferricyanide solution locally with a brush or bit of absorbent cotton.

Extreme care is needed in this operation. In this way unduly deep shadows

can be softened, veiled high lights brightened, or almost any modification

obtained which may be deemed desirable. When reduction is almost completed

quickly rinse the print in running water and then wash thoroughly. If the

print has been dried, it is only necessary to soak it for a few moments in

a fresh fixing bath, when the ferricyanide can be applied as before.



Latterly the toning of bromide prints has become popular. There are many

methods and innumerable formulae. Here we shall concern ourselves with the

sulphide method which best fulfills the three chief requirements, namely:

(1) Certainty of results; (2) the use of few baths; (3) the production of

permanent prints. Processes which, as regards color, vigor, etc., are

beyond the control of the worker, are of very little practical use.

Equally so, if the toning involves a whole string of operations, the final

outcome of which is usually--a spoilt print. And, lastly, a process

which--however satisfactory it may be in other respects--impairs the

undoubted permanency of a black-developed print is not one worthy of

adoption. In one or two other respects, processes vary chiefly as regards

the depth or intensity which the print must have in order to produce the

most satisfactory result when toned. Thus, prints to be toned with uranium

require to be distinctly on the pale side, whilst those for sulphide

toning are best a little vigorous. One or two other methods, on the other

hand, require the use of the costly gold or platinum salts. The latter,

except under exceptional circumstances, are far better employed in the

legitimate form of platinotype or other platinum paper; bromide prints

toned with platinum will probably cost more, and will never have the

absolute permanence peculiar to the platinum print.



Placed in rough order of merit, the processes available are: Sulphide

toning (hypo-alum toning is a cheaper, slower, and not quite so effective

form of this method, whilst the thio processes represent sulphide toning

at its best); copper toning; toning by re-development. These methods

differ, not only in the results which they give, but also as regards the

perfection with which each attains its particular effect; on the principle

of the lady in the play who spoke the "absolute truth under the

circumstances," each may claim to be included among the really serviceable

processes.



In the sulphide process, the image which, in a black-developed print,

consists of metallic silver in fine division, is converted into silver

sulphide, a substance which in the ordinary way is also black, but when

produced in a fine condition on a photographic print is brown to sepia

color. Silver sulphide is a most permanent substance. Therefore a

sulphide-toned print should be permanent, too, a conclusion which is fully

borne out in practice. A sulphide-toned print is at least as permanent as

the bromide from which it is made. The image of the latter is susceptible

to practically only one agent likely to come in contact with it, namely,

sulphur fumes from burning gas, which partially sulphurize it and give

rise to iridescent markings resembling those due to stale paper. Now, as

the sulphide-toned print is the result of this sulphurizing process

carried out with intention to a state of completeness, the result should

be--and proves to be in practice--immune to this one cause of defacement.



In converting the silver image into one of silver sulphide, the method is

to first act on (bleach) the silver image with some reagent which will

change it into a compound of silver susceptible to the action of sulphide.

Iodine has been used for this, giving an image of silver iodide. Bromine

gives one of silver bromide. A mixture of potass bichromate and

hydrochloric acid gives silver chloride, as does also a solution of

chlorine, though in the former case the presence of the chromium compounds

affects the color obtained. But the best of the lot is a solution of the

two substances potassium ferricyanide and potassium bromide, which forms

an image of silver ferrocyanide and silver bromide. Both of these are

converted into silver sulphide when treated with a solution of sodium

sulphide. In the case of the hypo-alum process, in which the prints are

toned direct (without bleaching) in a mixture of hypo and alum, the image

is also changed into silver sulphide, but only to a partial extent.

Theoretically, the method is not so good as sulphide proper; it is much

more inconvenient in practice except on a commercial scale, while the

results cannot be said to quite equal those by the sulphide process as

regards permanency.



So much by way of theory. We will now give the formulae for the two

solutions required in the sulphide process. The first of these is the

"bleach," or oxidizing mixture of bromide and ferricyanide. Within

reasonable limits, the proportions of these salts and the quantity of each

in the solution does not matter very much. Each chemical can, if desired,

be kept in a separate solution if care be taken to keep the mixture in the

dark,--that is, in a cupboard where it will not be exposed constantly to

daylight. The ferricyanide suffers in time by exposure to daylight; but,

as both it and the bromide are comparatively cheap and serve for a large

number of prints, there is no need to take excessive care. The

ferricyanide-bromide mixture, however, keeps very much better than a plain

solution of ferricyanide alone. Formulae which place the salts in separate

solutions are a mistake.



As good a formula as any is: Potass ferricyanide, 300 grains; potass

bromide, 100 grains, water 20 ounces; Ammonium bromide may be used in

place of the potassium salt in the above formula; the difference is not

marked, but the ammonium compound tends to give a somewhat warmer brown or

sepia. In the case of many formulae, it will be noticed that equal

quantities of bromide and ferricyanide are recommended. Although, as just

stated, variations in the formula are not at all marked in their effects,

a proportion of bromide over one-quarter of the ferricyanide does tend

towards the yellowish color of which complaints are now and again heard. I

want to make it clear that the opportunities for going wrong with the

bleacher are very small indeed. Without encouraging the reader to be

careless let it be said that "any old formula" (of ferricyanide and

bromide) for the bleacher will prove successful. Not so, however, in the

case of the sulphide solution, which requires to be very carefully made up

and used.



Sulph_ide_, not sulph_ite_. The material for the toning or darkening of

the bleached print is the chemical substance, sodium sulphide, of the

formula Na_2S.9H_2O. This is purchased as small crystals which greedily

absorb water and rapidly become almost liquid if not properly corked. Not

that this totally unfits the sulphide for use. Sulphide which has gone

liquid will at all times be found to work perfectly, but it is of course

open to suspicion, and, in any case, it is not possible to know what is

the strength of a solution made up with such a supply. For this reason, it

is best to make up the sulphide into solution of 20 per cent strength, and

add this to water to make the toning bath. And it is here that a caution

must be noted. The weak working solution, which is only about 1 to 2 per

cent strength, keeps very badly indeed, and should be made up fresh from

the stock solution at the time of toning each batch of prints. This is one

of the most necessary items to bear in mind in using the sulphide process.



Sodium sulphide is sold in various degrees of purity, and the label on the

bottle is not always in exact correspondence with the condition of the

substance inside, but the two forms which must be adhered to for sulphide

toning are the ordinary "pure" and the "pure for analysis." The former can

be obtained from any reliable drug store or photographic dealer. It comes

in small lumps, yellowish to greenish in color; when dissolved in water

the solution will be yellow, and will usually show a deposit which must be

filtered off. This sulphide will give tones which are sepia brown with

most papers. In the case of the "pure-for-analysis" sulphide, which is the

recrystallized variety, the salt will be pure white and will form a quite

colorless and clear solution in water. The tone given by this kind of

sulphide is usually of a more purplish color. The distinct difference

between the two commercial varieties of sulphide should not be overlooked,

as it allows the worker to modify the process usefully when dealing with

papers differing (as all papers do) to a slight extent in their

adaptability to sulphide toning. The purer form has certainly much better

keeping properties than the other, but either, if made up in 20 per cent

solution, keeps for a month or two at least--which is enough for all

purposes. The chief difference between the two is noticed in the diluted

or working solutions. That of the purest sulphide _may_ be kept and used

again, though it is not really good policy to do so.



The supply of sulphide should therefore be dissolved as soon as purchased,

as follows: _Stock sulphide solution_--20 per cent; sodium sulphite 4

ounces; water to make 20 ounces. The actual toning solution is made up at

the time of treating the prints by mixing the above stock with water, as

follows: _Sulphide toning bath._--Stock 20 per cent solution 3 ounces;

water to make 20 ounces.



This makes a bath which contains about one per cent real sulphide,

corresponding with about a 3 per cent solution of the sulphide as

purchased. If the bath is much weaker, the tone obtained is usually not

quite so good; while, if it is stronger, there is danger of the print's

blistering while toning, or afterward in the washing water. Indeed, some

papers need to be toned in a weaker bath, and require also to be fixed in

an alum-hypo fixing bath (see later), so that the strength of the toning

bath given above may be taken as the maximum, and used at half or

one-third strength, as circumstances show to be necessary. And, to repeat

the caution once more, the toning bath is to be thrown away as soon as the

prints have been passed through it. With these points in our mind as to

the making up of the solution, we can come to the process proper.



The prints require to be well washed and free from hypo before being

placed in the bromide-ferricyanide bleacher, because any hypo in

conjunction with the ferricyanide will form the well-known Farmer's

reducer, and cause patchiness of the prints. It is immaterial whether the

prints are taken direct through the toning process or dried in the

meantime. Some workers contend that the toning process is more regular if

the prints are dried before bleaching. In either case, immersion in the

bleacher will cause the fully developed bromide to disappear, leaving only

a faint brown image behind. In some cases the image is fainter than in

others, the difference appearing to depend chiefly on the developer

employed. Developers with a liability to stain will give prints which do

not bleach out so completely as those made with cleaner working

developers. But, in all cases, two to three minutes' action of the

bleaching solution will be ample; if all pure black is not gone in this

time, it is a sign that the bleach is becoming exhausted. The prints

should be kept constantly on the move whilst in the solution, and turned

over and over to ensure equal action. They are then given quite a brief

rinse in running water--half a minute to a minute--and then transferred to

the sulphide solution, where they should darken to the full brown or sepia

tone in a few seconds. It is well always to leave them here for twice to

three times the period required to give the full tone. A wash of half an

hour will remove the salts left in the film.



Granted that bleacher and sulphide are in proper working order, there is

one further factor in the making of sepia prints which is of vital

importance, and that is the proper preparation of the print itself. A good

sulphide tone presupposes a good black and white bromide. Not only that,

defects in the bromide which may lie latent while the print is untoned

come to light in the sulphide bath. This applies to uneven fixation (due

to omission to keep prints moving in the hypo bath) and fingering of the

surface; while, as regards the original development of the print, making

the best of a wrong exposure will not do when sulphide toning is in view.

A print that is forced by long development will suffer in tone, the result

being colder and less satisfactory as regards vigor. Full exposure, and

development which is complete in the normal time for a perfect black

print, are the conditions for a good sepia tone, and, when a batch of

prints is being put through, it is well to take steps to preserve a

uniform time of development in order to secure an identical tone

throughout.



There are many different formulas for the uranium toning of bromide

prints, and I suppose that most of them have given good results with the

workers who published their methods. Of those which I have tried, however,

none has yielded the results which I have been enabled to obtain from my

own formula--my own in that I arrived at it by patient experimenting. It

may be that this formula is not wholly original with myself. At any rate,

I do not claim anything for it except that it works, with me, better than

others I have tried.



The requirements for toning bromide prints with uranium are: 1 ounce of

uranium nitrate; 1 ounce of potassium ferricyanide (the red crystals); 1/2

pound bottle of acetic acid--c. p. glacial preferred; water; a supply of

blotting paper, to be kept exclusively for this purpose, and a few

absolutely and chemically clean trays.



The expense attached to these toning processes is slight. Uranium nitrate

costs from forty to sixty cents per ounce, and an ounce will last a long

time. Potassium ferricyanide costs about twenty cents per pound, and a

pound is ample for a lifetime. Glacial acetic acid is a little more

costly, but a half-pound bottle will prove a good investment. It is used

also, as the reader will recall, in making acid hypo for acid fixing.



To prepare the toning baths, dissolve the ounce of uranium nitrate in 10

ounces of water. The water should be distilled if this is easily

obtainable, and the solution should be kept in an orange-glass bottle or

an ordinary bottle protected from light by a non-actinic paper wrapping.

Dissolve the ounce of potassium ferricyanide in 10 ounces of water. Keep

this also in an orange-glass bottle, well corked. There are many cautions

about this particular salt, and it has been said that it will not keep in

solution. In my practice I find no difficulty whatever in the use of a

solution six months old, despite the difficulties mentioned in the

text-books.



To tone the bromide prints, first note that the prints should have been

developed and fixed and washed just as usual. It is necessary that prints

to be toned shall contain no trace of hypo. To secure this, the prints

should be specially prepared for toning by being again thoroughly washed,

as any hypo remaining in the print will cause spots and streakiness. With

care at this stage the toning will give clean and bright prints, which

should be as permanent as the original bromide print.



I cannot give the reason why, but, as a general rule, bromide prints tone

better if the print has been dried after washing and rewet just before

toning. There may be a chemical reason for this, but I am inclined to

think that it is a physical one, viz., that the emulsion is softer after

its first washing than after having been dried and wet, so that it allows

toning solution to get into the film more quickly. This naturally results

in more rapid toning, and quick toning does not yield as good prints as a

slower and more gradual building up of the color image.



Having the print ready for toning as here outlined, take 1 dram of the

uranium solution, add 1/2 dram of acetic acid and then 5 ounces of water.

In a separate graduate put 1 dram of ferricyanide solution and 5 ounces of

water. Just before toning, pour these two solutions together into the

third graduate and use immediately. To proceed, lay the rewetted print

face up in a clean tray and flow the freshly made toning bath (the two

solutions combined) over the print. The print and tray must be kept in

motion by gentle rocking during the toning operation. The toning solution

tends to throw a red precipitate as it works. This precipitate should not

be permitted to settle on the face of the print. Some workers tone their

prints face down, but I do not advocate this, as it is important to take

the print from the toning bath at just the right moment, and, as the

toning process is short (six or seven minutes is usually sufficient even

for the deepest red) you need to watch the print all the time. In the

toning operation note that a constant quiet motion of the tray, to keep

the solution moving over the print, is essential to success.



I have already given, in an earlier paragraph, the order in which the

colors come. But that order was for a normal print. Some prints behave

differently, and it is in the control of these unavoidable variations with

different prints that skill and success come. A print of a half-tone

subject against a jet-black background, a portrait, for instance, will

hardly follow the normal order in the appearance of colors. This because

the half-tones will be brown and even red-brown before the toning solution

has changed the dense black deposit of the background at all. If the

toning was stopped at this stage, some very pretty effects in double

toning might result.



From this explanation of the toning process, the discerning reader will

perceive the need for caution in selecting the best kind of a print for

uranium toning. Thus a print which has a bald-headed sky will tone only in

the body of the print, but if there is any tint at all to the sky, it also

will tone, giving an effect not much to be desired except for sunset or

sunrise pictures. If white high-lights are desired in the toned print,

they must be white originally and not the least bit fogged. As

double-toned effects in a print are not usually desirable, those prints

having deep black shadows or dark masses will be avoided. The best kind of

print for this method of toning is one fully exposed and slightly

under-developed, since, when the uranium does take hold of the shadows, it

makes for an increase of contrast.



Experience is the best teacher, and I could not begin to describe in

detail what the reader can himself ascertain from a few experiments. Some

prints needing contrast should be carried far in the toning solution;

others, not needing contrast, will give better results if they are toned

only through the browns, and so on. The reader who can spend a Saturday

afternoon with a few bromide prints, varying in character, will learn more

from his experimenting than I could tell him in many pages. For these

experiments waste or imperfect black prints can be used with practical

economy, the chief object being to watch the progress of toning and

chemical changes.



When the desired tone is reached, remove the print from the toning

solution and wash quickly and well in running water for fifteen minutes.

If washed too long, the color of the print will fade and a dead and

lifeless print will result. If not washed long enough, the yellow of the

ferricyanide will remain in the print, robbing its gradations of

brightness and purity of color and impairing the permanency of the print.



A big advantage in this method of toning is its wonderful adaptability.

There is no hard and fast rule as to the proportion of the chemicals to

the bulk of water used. Try two drams of each of the two solutions; then

three drams of each, but watch that the print does not get beyond you in

toning. The only practical difference in my formula and others that I have

seen is that I make my stock solution weaker than that ordinarily advised

and use less of it to a certain amount of water, because I prefer slow

toning and the accompanying ease of control which the flash-in-the-pan

formula does not admit. Quick toning, like quick development, tends to

block the shadows in the print, and if you once get bronzed shadows the

print is practically hopeless. Not quite ruined, however, as a bath in a 5

per cent solution of sodium carbonate will discharge the color and then,

if the print is faded, it may be redeveloped in an alkaline developer such

as metol-hydro. But before it is retoned the print must be thoroughly

washed, as the presence of sodium carbonate does not permit the toning

solution to do its work.



Finally, I may say that, while a bath of acetic acid and water is often

advised to stop the toning action in this method, I have never found it

necessary.



All the thin varieties of bromide paper curl badly in drying. If they are

to be kept unmounted it is well to immerse them in water to which has been

added a few drops of glycerine. This will ensure their lying flat after

drying. A solution of 2 ounces of glycerine in 25 ounces of water is

advised when it is desired to make bromides on heavy rough paper remain

flat, after drying, for book illustration and similar purposes.



If one is trying to rush through a bromide print, it can be trimmed while

wet by placing it on a sheet of stiff paper and cutting through both.



The paper will be found to cockle the mounts badly in drying. Aside from

the glue mountant, formula for which accompanies the paper, I know no

preventive except to mount the prints while dry with the dry mounting

tissue. As the paper when wet stretches one way considerably, as much as a

third of an inch on a ten- or twelve-inch length, provision must be made

in trimming, especially if mounts with centers of a given size are used.



The paper being covered with an emulsion which in warm weather is very

soft while wet, mounting is somewhat more difficult than with some of the

other papers. My method is to mount not more than half a dozen at once,

placing them face down, one on top of the other, on a glass or ferrotype

plate, blotting off the surface water and spreading the paste over the top

one in the usual way. I place this on the mount and then stretch over it

smoothly a damp handkerchief or piece of very thin rubber cloth, rubbing

the print down with my hands, seldom using the squeegee and then very

lightly. By this method abrasion of the surface seldom results and

air-bells are unknown. Owing to the strong contracting power of the paper

in drying, the mounting paste must be used freely, especially at the edges

of the print.



Apart from the methods of procedure here given, there are innumerable

modifications covering every detail of contact printing and enlarging on

bromide paper. Most of these have been given careful trial as published,

but few have quite fulfilled the expectations they created.









BOOKS.



Manuals dealing with the manipulation of the various brands of paper may

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bromide paper or their American agents as follows: The Eastman Kodak Co.,

Rochester, N. Y.; The Defender Photo Supply Co., Rochester, N. Y.; J. L.

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Make Your Own Enlargements



[Illustration]



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[Illustration]



  THE PRICE



  No. 2 Brownie Enlarging Camera, for 5 x 7 Enlargements

    from 2-1/4 x 3-1/4 negatives,                         $2.00



  No. 3, ditto, for 6-1/2 x 8-1/2 Enlargements

    from 3-1/4 x 4-1/4 negatives,                          3.00



  No. 4, ditto, for 8 x 10 Enlargements from 4 x 5

    negatives (will also take 3-1/4 x 5-1/2 negatives),    4.00





EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY,

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[Illustration]



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