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Title: The Barnet Book of Photography

       A Collection of Practical Articles



Author: Various



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  THE BARNET

  BOOK OF

  PHOTOGRAPHY.









  THE BARNET

  BOOK OF

  PHOTOGRAPHY.



  A COLLECTION OF PRACTICAL ARTICLES



  BY



  CAPT. W. DE W. ABNEY, C.B., F.R.S., ETC.

  CHARLES H. BOTHAMLEY, F.C.S., F.I.C.

  CHAPMAN JONES, F.C.S., F.I.C.

  HAROLD BAKER

  A. HORSLEY HINTON

  JOHN H. AVERY

  W. THOMAS

  ANDREW PRINGLE

  JOHN A. HODGES, F.R.P.S.

  REV. F. C. LAMBERT, M.A.

  W. ETHELBERT HENRY, C.E.

  JAMES PACKHAM, F.R.P.S.

  THO'S. S. SKELTON



  [Illustration]



  THIRD EDITION.





  Published by

  ELLIOTT & SON, BARNET, HERTS.



  PERCY LUND, HUMPHRIES & CO., LTD.,

  3, AMEN CORNER, LONDON, E.C.



  1898.



  [Illustration]









  CONTENTS OF

  THE BOOK.



                                                                 PAGE.

  ALPINE PHOTOGRAPHY. _W. de W. Abney, C.B., F.R.S._                 9



  NEGATIVE MAKING. _C. H. Bothamley, F.C.S., F.I.C._                23



  LENSES. _Chapman Jones, F.C.S., F.I.C._                           57



  PORTRAITURE. _Harold Baker_                                       77



  PICTORIAL PHOTOGRAPHY. _A. Horsley Hinton_                        87



  ARCHITECTURAL PHOTOGRAPHY. _John H. Avery_                       117



  THE HAND CAMERA AND ITS USE. _W. Thomas_                         131



  LANTERN SLIDES. _Andrew Pringle_                                 141



  HOW TO MAKE ENLARGEMENTS. _John A. Hodges, F.R.P.S._             155



  P.O.P. _Rev. F. C. Lambert, M.A._                                177



  PLATINOTYPE PRINTING. _A. Horsley Hinton_                        197



  CONTACT PRINTING ON BROMIDE PAPER. _W. Ethelbert Henry, C.E._    225



  THE GUM-BICHROMATE PROCESS. _Jas. Packham, F.R.P.S._             241



  AN INTRODUCTION TO CARBON PRINTING FOR BEGINNERS                 253



  THE CARBON PROCESS. _Thomas S. Skelton_                          261





  ILLUSTRATIONS.





  HOMEWARDS. KARL GREGER                                            16



  AMONG THE ALPS. W. DE W. ABNEY                                    24



  WINTER TIME ON THE ALPS. W. DE W. ABNEY                           40



  MELTON MEADOWS. A. HORSLEY HINTON                                 72



  MISS LILY HANBURY--A PORTRAIT. HAROLD BAKER                       88



  GATHER THE ROSES WHILE YE MAY. ALEX. KEIGHLEY                    120



  BIRCH AND BRACKEN. W. THOMAS                                     136



  DRIFTING STORM CLOUDS. W. THOMAS                                 168



  STREONSALCH. W. J. WARREN                                        200



  CUPBOARD LOVE. T. LEE SYMS                                       232



  AT THE FOUNTAIN. J. W. WADE                                      264









PREFACE.





[Illustration: THE BARNET BOOK OF PHOTOGRAPHY.]



_The purpose of this book is to place in the hands of every

Photographer instructive articles on essential processes and

manipulations, by eminent writers who have given such subjects their

especial study, and who have borne in mind that whilst the

experienced Amateur and the Professional may each find much to learn

from a comparatively elementary description of methods and means, it

is the Beginner who stands in greatest need of help._



_In the mind of every photographer the name of Barnet is inseparable

from a great Photographic Industry, and now it is intended that the

name shall be associated with a good and useful book, which is

called the_ BARNET BOOK OF PHOTOGRAPHY, _and it is left to the

reader to say if the fulfilment of its purpose and the manner of its

doing are such as to justify its existence._



_To all who are interested in photography, who love it for itself

and for its productions, and who desire to improve their own

practice of its many processes and applications, this Book is

respectfully dedicated._



  _Barnet, Herts._

      _April, 1898._

                                        _ELLIOTT & SON._



[Illustration: COPYRIGHT. NEGATIVE BY W. L. F. WASTELL. A FAMOUS

PIKE STREAM. Contact Print on BARNET PLATINO-MATT BROMIDE PAPER.]









_Alpine Photography._





[Illustration]



Writing in London on a day in winter with a murky sky and sloshy

streets, the title of Alpine Photography is verily refreshing. It

brings back days of sunlight and joyous experiment, and as we write

the soul stirring scenery is before us called up by photographs

taken under varying conditions of comfort and discomfort. That there

is something different in Alpine photography to photography in our

own country, we are bound to believe, since a special article is

demanded for it.



The first question invariably asked is as to the nature of the outfit

required. We should here like to divide our reply into two divisions.

The one concerning the mountaineer, and the other the ordinary

tourist. For the former we have no doubt in our minds that a hand

camera to take 1/4 plate or 5 x 4 pictures is the most convenient

form of camera to take. It is not our business to advertise any

person's wares and we shall content ourselves by saying that

personally we prefer a camera which has separate slides and does not

possess a magazine, more particularly when glass plates are to be

used, though a form of Kodak is not to be despised. But perhaps we

are prejudiced in favour of glass plates, for they are simple to

manipulate and have no cockles nor other drawbacks which the careless

photographer may have to encounter. Probably the most useful lens to

employ is a doublet of which the focal length is about a quarter more

than the width of the plate, since it includes a fair angle and the

margins of the photographs are not likely to be markedly different in

general density to the centre, as is the case when wide-angle lenses

are employed. In England a lens which will cover with a large stop,

say _f_/8, is a desideratum, but in the Alps it is very rarely that

such a large ratio of aperture to focal length is required. As a rule

for ordinary plates a lens has to be stopped down to _f_/16 to give a

negative in say 1/50th of a second. Nevertheless where orthochromatic

plates are to be employed it is very necessary to have a lens which

will cover a plate satisfactorily with _f_/8 in order to use a colour

screen for producing orthochromatic effects, since the loss of

photographic light caused by the screen can only be compensated for

by such an aperture even when the shutter is slowed down. The reader

is therefore recommended on the whole to furnish himself with one of

the modern lenses which work at _f_/8, though he must remember that

the larger the aperture employed the more the margins and centre of

the picture will suffer from unequal exposure. With some hand cameras

there is a means of attachment to a stand, but a stand on a mountain

is difficult to use and moreover has on more than one occasion been

proved dangerous to carry. The mountaineer if he desires to give a

time--and not an instantaneous--exposure on his excursion, would do

well to have a small clip ready to attach to the head of his ice axe.

The axe will form a sufficiently stable stand for the more prolonged,

but still short, exposure that he may be required to give on some

particular subjects such as a photograph at sunrise or near sunset.



Photographers in England are rarely afflicted with breathlessness

through exertion, but it is different in mountaineering. A

mountaineer may keep his wind, but it would be rare to find that his

heart was beating equably after some spurt of exertion, such as rock

climbing. It is often after some such exertion that he comes upon

some view which he may wish to record on his photographic plate. The

usual method of holding the hand camera would under such

circumstances prove a failure so far as sharpness of image is

concerned. Pressed against his "middle" or "upper" chest, the

beatings of the heart will record themselves on the photograph.

Under such circumstances resort must be had to some form of support

on which to rest his camera. After many years' experience, the

writer has come to the conclusion that there is no support superior

to the ice axe. It is not necessary to cause it to stand upright in

the ground, ice, or snow, though this should be done if possible. It

will suffice to rest the point on the rock, and place the camera on

the axe head, with the pick parallel to the body. We then have a

firm support in one direction, and the hands, which are not affected

by the automatic motion of the heart, can be trusted to keep it

steady in the other direction. Photographs taken with a good lens,

and with such a stand, will bear enlarging up to 22 inches, at

least. It is because these photographs will bear enlarging that a

small plate is recommended to the mountaineer. There is not a large

proportion of Alpine views taken on the mountain side of which one

would care to have anything but a memorandum, and it is such a size

as that recommended which gives such a memento, and which, if

desired, allows a more formidable size to be acquired at home, where

we may suppose there are all the conveniences that a photographic

laboratory affords. The writer has had experience on mountains with

cameras varying from 12 x 10 to the 1/4 plate size. When younger and

more inclined to waste a few valuable minutes of daylight in putting

up a camera stand, the 12 x 10 gave pictures which we often lamented

having taken, whilst in his more mature years, a snap-shot has never

been regretted. The cameras which require stands, require one porter

at least to carry them, for although the late Mr. Donkin carried his

own 7-1/2 x 5 camera up the highest peaks, it is few men, who, even

if they had the energy or the physique that he had, would imitate

his example. A porter means an extra expense in fees, and an extra

mouth to feed, and very likely entails slowness in a climb through

having an additional man upon the rope. A quarter plate or a 5 x 4

camera the owner, however, can himself carry; but the best form of

attaching it to his body has been a difficult task to evolve. Many

and many different attachments have been tried. One thing is quite

certain, and that is, the camera should be in a stout case, but it

cannot be carried over the shoulders by a strap as we can do in

comparatively level countries. Let anyone try to come down a rock

with the camera slung over his shoulders, and he will soon find it

dangling in front of his stomach, or swinging like a pendulum, and

threatening to displace him from what at best may be a treacherous

handhold. The method of attachment we adopt now, will be readily

seen from the diagram.



[Illustration]



The shoulder strap is utilized, but a ring is attached to the back

of the case as shown, and a strap or piece of whipcord comes over

the strap as shown. The two shoulders are in AA and the case is

carried as a knapsack. The length of the cord or strap BB is so

adjusted, as is also the length of the shoulder strap, that the

camera lies against the small of the back, and that it will not

swing away from the body. At one time the ring was placed in front

of the case, but the result was merely to cause the top of the case

to rest against the back. The plan shown above has answered under

almost every variety of circumstances, and the weight is

inconsiderable. (A friend has his camera attached to the bottom of a

small "ruecksac" and this answers, but as the writer does not carry

his own provisions or change of garments he has not adopted this

plan). A long day's march may be undertaken if this contrivance be

employed, and the weight is scarcely felt.



For those who have not had extensive practice with hand cameras, a

view finder is, if not a necessity, at all events, a great help. On

the whole, perhaps the best form is that in which a miniature view

falls on a ground glass. It must be recollected, however, that each

view finder is adapted for some particular focal length of lens.

The view in the finder and on the plate should be compared, and if

the former is more extensive, the surplus ground glass should be

covered up with a black mask.



If it be determined to take a camera with its stand, very few

directions are required beyond those which apply to ordinary view

work on the plains. It may perhaps be as well to mention that a

camera stand placed on ice or snow, is not immovable until the iron

shoes of the legs attain the temperature of the surrounding snow or

ice. An exposure of a few seconds will often show an image which has

moved on the plate.



The next point that we may call attention to is the plate to be

employed. With a hand camera there is no absolute necessity to have

the most rapid plate, as far as exposure is concerned, but in

mountain work it must be recollected that there are very great

contrasts to represent on the print. "The slower the plate the

steeper the gradation" is almost axiomatic, and it must be

recollected that only a certain amount of opacity will print if the

deepest shadows only are to be kept of the greatest black obtainable

in a print. It is evident that the greater the range of light and

shade that is obtained of a printable density, the more true to

nature the picture will be. For this reason a quick plate with a

moderate gradation is to be preferred--as being most generally

useful--but it should be a plate which is absolutely free from fog,

and it should also be of as fine a grain as possible, the size of

which has something to do with development. This is still more true

when a camera stand and hand exposures are made. With a slow plate

with feebler intensities of light, which must be the case when the

lens is stopped down to admit of hand exposures, the gradation

becomes more steep than if a fairly bright light be employed. A

quick plate does not suffer in the same way, however small the stop

may be. It has already been stated that isochromatic plates may be

employed with a hand camera. For ice and snow views there is not

much to commend their employment, unless to give a deeper shade to

the sky and to the vast crevasses which so often form part of the

foreground. The darker sky allows faint clouds to be visible in a

print when they otherwise would be absent. Pictorially thus the

isochromatic plate has something to recommend it. Celluloid films

have often been substituted for plates by the writer, and excellent

photographs have been obtained on them when they were fairly rapid.

There is not much to be said in their favour as regards weight, for

in most cameras the support for them weighs nearly as much as the

glass plate. There is also a disadvantage in developing them, for

they are not so easily manipulated as a rigid body. For convenience

in travelling, however, they are to be highly commended. A gross of

cut films do not weigh so much as a dozen plates and occupy much

less space in the baggage. The question of the use of a Kodak camera

with its roller slide, has not been brought forward, not because

excellent results cannot be obtained with it, but simply because the

writer prefers to use plates and films which can be got at any time

for the purpose of development.



For travelling on the continent, and to one's mountain destination,

experience has shown that a small hamper is the safest receptacle of

all the necessary kit. A hamper which will contain two camera cases

side by side is really sufficient; but it should be a little greater

in depth. It may be thought that two cameras are to be taken, but

such is not the intention. If a zinc trough be made of the size of

one camera case it will contain all the developing apparatus

necessary, the lantern, and the plates or films, and all the few

etceteras which go to make one happy. (A screwdriver, a file, and

some extra screws, and gummed paper and white blotting paper cut to

the size of the plates should be enough for the etceteras). The

hamper may be arranged so that the camera and view finder may be

taken out without any derangement of the rest of the articles in it.

The developing bottles and cups, with the dishes, may be similarly

extracted. This prevents undue trouble in unpacking and packing. One

grand thing to remember is, pack well but not distressingly tightly,

in other words don't employ an expert packer if you wish for comfort.

Have the hamper a size too large rather than a size too small. Also

be it remembered that it is useless to stopper the bottles with all

sorts of devices at home, and have to pack in an ordinary manner when

once the contents of the hamper have been brought into use. Have your

bottles covered with an indiarubber cap which can easily be removed

and replaced; of course we are assuming that development is to take

place during one's travels, and not to be left over for home.

Personally we think that a speedy development after a view is taken

will give the best picture. It may often happen that an undeveloped

sensitive plate or film will suffer by its travels. There will or may

be scratches and what not, which would be absent if the negative is

finished at the time. The outfit for development which need only be

taken is as follows: four developing dishes, bottles or cartridges of

the dry developer, ammonia diluted to half its strength in a glass

stoppered bottle (if in a wooden case, as for medicine bottles, it

will be a further protection), a couple of tins of hyposulphite

_pounded up_ before the journey, carried in small tins (such tins as

the half-plate platinum paper comes in are very convenient), two or

three empty six ounce medicine bottles with good corks, a two or

four ounce measure, a washing rack with a trough (there is a

folding rack in the market which answers admirably; it has =v= shaped

grooves which never damage the edges of the film, and one rack will

take twenty-two glasses back to back). A zinc trough can be made to

cover the plates with water when in the rack, a lantern (by

preference a paper folding one), a dusting brush, a couple of

dusters, and blotting paper cut into squares the size of the plates,

with which to pack them--it is useful also to have spare pieces of

blotting paper to place beneath the plates when drying, also a piece

of mackintosh to place on the wash stand during developing

operations--an empty pint wine bottle will be got at any hotel and in

this the hyposulphite can be dissolved. The list looks formidable but

the whole can be readily packed in the hamper of the size given. It

will be seen that no intensifying solutions are enumerated amongst

the requisites. A negative is better strengthened in the quiet of

one's dark-room at home.



[Illustration: HOMEWARDS. KARL GREGER.]



Now we must give a hint or two as to the exposures required. We will

suppose that on the plates to be used a satisfactory negative of an

open English landscape, on a bright June day with fleecy clouds in

the sky, can be secured with an aperture of _f_/11 in 1/25th of a

second. If that be so, then on an equally fine day in July or

August, at an altitude of about 6000 feet, the same kind of view

should theoretically be secured in 1/50th second, and a stop of

_f_/16--that is, the photographic light is about four times as

strong. It must, however, be recollected that at this altitude, and

particularly near mid-day, the shadows are not illuminated to the

same degree from the sky. The darker blue sky shows that the light

which at a low altitude goes to make a pale blue sky is to be found

in the direct rays of the sun, and not scattered to give a luminous

sky. As the shadows are principally illuminated by the light from

the sky, it follows that the shadows will be darker at a high than

at a low altitude, for this reason amongst others, the exposure

should not be curtailed to the amount given above. If the aperture

be reduced to _f_/16 it is probable that the exposure of 1/25th

second will be not more than sufficient to give. For our own part we

prefer to give longer and to expose well for the deep shadows,

trusting to development to give us properly "gradated" pictures. As

the sun goes down toward the horizon, the shadows get more illumined

from local reflection, and it is scarcely necessary to alter the

exposure until considerably nearer sunset than at home, when the

exposure must be considerably prolonged. For views in which there is

little but ice and snow, the exposure should be very much curtailed.

There is so little contrast that if the exposure be at all prolonged

the picture will be inevitably flat. The shadows are illumined by an

immense quantity of light reflected from the white surface, and the

difficulty is to get sufficient contrast. The writer well remembers

one set of beautiful views, taken from the top of a mountain some

10,000 feet high, where the eye could see nothing but snow-fields

and ice and swirling masses of clouds. The day was not bright, but

to get a satisfactory picture a stop of _f_/32 was necessary with

only an exposure of 1/70th of a second. Plates given an exposure of

1/25th second with a stop _f_/16 showed little besides a plain white

mass. It would be difficult to give hints for every kind of view.

The judgment of the operator must be brought into play and no

actinometer will be of much use under the varied conditions which

are the rule, not the exception.



Now as to development. The "one-solution" given by the metol and

amidol cartridges are the most readily prepared, and in five times

out of six will scarcely be bettered, but for the sixth time may

fail, because of their "rigidity." For these exceptional negatives,

solutions of an oxidizing agent such as pyrogallol, of a restrainer

(bromide), and of an accelerator are to be recommended. For the

latter, the carbonate (not the bicarbonate) of potash is much to be

recommended, though some prefer ammonia. Two formulae are given,

either of which will be found extremely useful. When the exposure

has been prolonged enough for details in deep shadows to be brought

out, it will generally happen that over-exposure has been given to

the high-lights, and it is to keep these in the printing state that

care is required. In the old collodion dry plate days, it was very

usual to bring out a complete phantom image of a subject before any

density was given to it. When this was properly out, the intensifier

of silver nitrate and pyrogallol was applied, and the picture

gradually brought up to printing density. It was usually full of

detail in the high-lights and shadows, all of which would be found

in the finished print. Such is the same procedure which we

recommend, strive to get out an image of feeble density but full of

detail, and then give the density.



The plate should first of all be thoroughly soaked in a solution of

the alkali which can be used, and then a few drops of the pyrogallol

solution be dropped into the developing cup with an equal number of

drops of the restrainer. The alkaline solution is then returned to

the cup and again poured into the dish and over the plate. By

degrees the required phantom image will make its appearance, and now

bromide and pyrogallol are added until it is evidently complete. The

plate is then washed in water, a final wash being given in a very

weak solution of acetic acid or citric and water. After a final

rinse with water the plate is treated with the pyrogallol solution

and restrainer in the proportion recommended for the ordinary

development of the plate, omitting the alkali. The density will

begin to appear, and when it flags, a little alkali is added (a few

drops at a time) to the solution. Keep the image fairly feeble at

above half the proper printing density, and fix. The plate should

then be kept for intensification, preferably by Mr. Chapman Jones's,

when a mercury solution is applied, and then a ferrous oxalate to

reduce the latter to the metallic state. It will be found if this

procedure is adopted, that the negative is built up with a greater

range of light gradation than by bringing it out by a one-solution

method of development. If one wishes to exercise artistic treatment,

then in the preliminary stage more importance can be given to any

desired part by applying a camel's hair brush soaked in normal

pyrogallol solution with its restrainer. The prominence thus gained

will be kept in the subsequent operations. When applying the brush

care must be taken that the image blends as it were with the rest of

the picture. No abrupt increase of density must be permitted, as if

it be, the result will be anything but satisfactory.



The following is an ammonia-pyro developer, with which the writer

usually works.



                 A

  Ammonia                1 part.

  Water                  9 parts.



(Of course, should the ammonia be taken half strength allowance must

be made for the dilution.)



                 B

  Potassium bromide     20 grains.

  Water                  1 ounce.



(When travelling it is very convenient to have the bromide weighed

out into 20 grain packets.)



                 P

  Pyrogallol               dry.



                 S

  Saturated solution of sulphite of soda.



When the view has strong contrasts and the plate has been exposed

for the shadows take of A 30 minims and 2 ounces of water and soak

the plate in it as given above. Then add to the cup, of B 2 drams,

of S 1 dram, and about quarter grain of P. Pour back the solution of

ammonia from the dish, and then apply the mixture till all detail

appears, and proceed as indicated above. A saturated solution of

potassium carbonate may be substituted for the ammonia solution.



Before closing this chapter it may be of use to the reader to

tabulate the number of thicknesses of atmospheres through which

light has to travel at different altitudes of the sun at sea level.



  Altitude.       Atmosphere.



     90 deg.             1.000

     80 deg.             1.015

     70 deg.             1.064

     60 deg.             1.155

     50 deg.             1.305

     40 deg.             1.555

     30 deg.             1.995

     20 deg.             2.904

     15 deg.             3.809

     10 deg.             5.571

     5 deg.             10.216

     4 deg.             12.151

     2 deg.             18.882

     0 deg.             35.503



If sunlight outside the atmosphere be represented by 1 and say

1/10th be cut off by 1 atmosphere, then after transmission through 2

atmospheres only .81 will reach the spectator, and if through 3 only

.729. For any atmosphere the diminution will be 1/10th, that is, it

will be .9^_x_ where _x_ is the number of atmospheres.



If we ascend the factor varies, there are less thicknesses of

atmosphere to go through and we get the following table.



                                           Photographically

                   Visual Transmission       Actinic Light

  Barometer         (Sunlight outside         Transmitted

  in Inches.         the Atmospheric       (Sunlight outside

                        being 1).           the Atmospheric

                                               being 1).



     30                   .853                   .639

     29                   .866                   .654

     28                   .875                   .672

     27                   .884                   .689

     26                   .891                   .708

     25                   .899                   .730

     24                   .908                   .746

     23                   .915                   .763

     22                   .922                   .787

     21                   .928                   .800

     20                   .934                   .819

     19                   .940                   .833



This table and the preceding one will enable a calculation to be

made as to the exposure to be given. Thus at sea level with a

photographic brightness of sun of 639,000 candles when nearly

overhead, it will at 5 deg. above the horizon only have a photographic

brightness of about 1000. At about 9000 feet high the photographic

brightness would when the sun is overhead be about 800,000 candles,

and at 5 deg. it would have a value of 350,000, showing the greater

penetration through the thinner atmosphere.



                         _W. de W. Abney, C.B., F.R.S., etc., etc._









Negative Making.



DEVELOPMENT, INTENSIFICATION, REDUCING, Etc.





[Illustration]



When a sensitive plate has been properly exposed under ordinary

conditions, there is no visible change. The action of light produces

what is known as a _latent image_ or _developable image_, and in

order to convert this into a visible image with sufficient opacity

to be useful for printing purposes, it must be _developed_. In the

operation of development, the plate is treated with some solution

that will act on the exposed parts of the sensitive film and reduce

the silver salts contained therein to metallic silver, in quantity

proportional to the amount of light-action, whilst at the same time

it produces no appreciable change in those parts of the film on

which light has acted the least or not at all, and which correspond

to the darkest shadows of the object that has been photographed. The

solution used for this purpose is called the _developer_.





DEVELOPERS--GENERAL.



The substances that can be employed as photographic developers are

now somewhat numerous, but the most useful for negative making are

pyrogallic acid (also known as pyrogallol, or for brevity as pyro.),

ortol, metol, and hydroquinone (also known as quinol). Ferrous

oxalate is likewise used in special circumstances, but not for

general work. An ordinary developer as mixed for use contains:--



     1.--One of the above-mentioned substances (pyrogallic acid,

     ortol, metol, quinol) which is the actual developing

     constituent, and is known as _the reducer_, but requires the

     addition of the next constituent before it can work.



     2.--An alkali, which may be sodium carbonate, potassium

     carbonate, caustic soda, caustic potash, or, if pyrogallic

     acid is used, ammonia. The alkali sets the reducer in action

     and is called _the accelerator_.



     3.--A soluble bromide, which must be potassium bromide

     except when ammonia is used as the alkali, and then it may

     be ammonium bromide. The chief use of the bromide is to

     retard the action of the developer, and in particular to

     prevent its affecting those parts of the film that have not

     been acted on by light. For this reason the bromide is

     called _the restrainer_ or, sometimes, _the retarder_.



     4.--A sulphite, the function of which is to prevent the

     solution from becoming strongly discoloured and consequently

     staining the film. It also affects the colour of the reduced

     silver that forms the developed image, this colour being

     browner, and consequently of higher printing opacity, the

     lower the proportion of sulphite present. Sodium sulphite

     and potassium metabisulphite are the most commonly used.



The composition of a developer has to be so arranged that, whilst

reasonably rapid in its action, it is not so rapid as to be beyond

control, and does not produce "general fog" by acting on those parts

of the film that have not been acted on by light.



[Illustration: AMONG THE ALPS. CAPT. W. DE W. ABNEY, C.B., F.R.S.

ETC.]



DEVELOPMENT--GENERAL OPERATIONS AND PHENOMENA.



A developer is usually compounded immediately before use by mixing

two or more solutions, and in order to ensure uniform action it is

essential that the constituents should be thoroughly mixed before

the liquid is applied to the plate. If the measuring or mixing

vessel is large enough, this can be done by agitating the liquid; if

not, the liquid may be poured once or twice from one vessel to

another.



The quantity of developer necessary for a plate of a given size

depends in some degree upon the size and character of the dish that

is used, and is smallest when the bottom of the dish is quite flat

and has no ridges or grooves. It is false economy to use too small a

quantity, and it may be taken that for a quarter plate 1-1/2 oz.,

for a half plate 2-1/2 or 3 oz., and for a whole plate 4 oz. of

developer should be used.



Ebonite, xylonite, or papier mache dishes are the best for all

operations connected with negative making, since they are not so

liable as porcelain or earthenware to break a plate if it is allowed

to drop into them.



When applying the developer to the plate it is important to cover

the whole surface of the plate rapidly and in such a manner as to

avoid the formation of air bubbles, and the best way is to begin to

pour on the developer at one corner of the developing dish and

whilst pouring somewhat quickly move the vessel rapidly but steadily

along the edge of the dish to the other corner. If there should be

any froth or air bubbles on the surface of the developer, the last

portions should not be poured out of the vessel into the dish, and

then the risk of air bubbles forming on the surface of the plate

will be lessened.



Sometimes after the developer has been poured on and the plate seems

to be uniformly wetted, the liquid will recede from one corner or

one edge of the plate and the part thus left uncovered will appear

as a patch of lower opacity when the negative is finished. This

happens either because the dish is not standing level on the table

or because the bottom of the dish is not flat; sometimes it happens

because too small a quantity of developer has been used.



After the plate has been covered by the developer the dish should be

carefully rocked from time to time, and, for reasons that will be

explained presently, the time required for the first appearance of

the image and the manner in which the different parts of the image

follow one another, should be carefully observed.



If the plate has been correctly exposed, the brightest parts of the

image will appear (as black, of course,) in about a minute, more or

less, according to the temperature, composition of the developer,

and character of the plate, and the other parts will follow steadily

in the order of their brightness, after which the image as a whole

will continue to gain vigour or opacity up to a certain limit. The

essential point is that the principal details in the deepest shadows

of the subject shall appear and acquire a distinct printable

opacity, before the highest lights become so opaque that the details

in them are no longer distinguishable. Whether this condition is

realisable or not depends very largely on the exposure that the

plate has received.



If the image appears in considerably less than a minute and the

different parts follow one another very quickly, the plate has been

_over-exposed_, and the degree of over-exposure is indicated by the

rapidity with which the image appears. In this connection it ought,

however, to be stated that with metol and certain other developers,

even when the plate has been correctly exposed, the different parts

of the image appear almost simultaneously, though the first

appearance may not begin until about a minute after the developer

has been applied to the plate. It follows that with these developers

it is difficult to recognise over-exposure, but it so happens that

they are not suitable developers to use when there is any

probability that the plates have been over-exposed. On the other

hand, if the image is slow in appearing and the brightest parts of

the subject are not followed in due course by the middle tones, the

plate has been _under-exposed_, and there is considerable danger

that the high-lights may become quite opaque before any details have

appeared in the shadows, or even, in extreme cases, in the lower

middle tones, that is to say, in those parts that are next in

darkness to the shadows.



When it is desired, as it frequently is, to alter the composition of

the developer during development, the substance or substances to be

added should be put into the measuring or mixing glass, the

developer poured out of the dish into the glass, and the well-mixed

liquid poured over the plate as before. Any attempt to add

substances to the developer whilst it is in contact with the plate

will probably result in uneven action.



It should be borne in mind that temperature has an important

influence on development, the time required for the first appearance

of the image and for the completion of development being, as a rule,

less the higher the temperature. Further, if the developing

solutions are very cold, it is often almost impossible to obtain

sufficient opacity.



Perhaps the most difficult thing in connection with development is

to know when to stop the process, that is to say, when the image has

acquired sufficient opacity, or "density," as it is often called.

After all the required detail has become visible, the plate from

time to time is lifted carefully out of the developer, allowed to

drain for a moment or two, and then held between the developing lamp

and the eye; the opacity of the image, especially in the highest

lights and deepest shadows, being carefully scrutinised. The

appearance of the image as seen when looking at the back of the

plate, is also carefully observed.



For this purpose it is very much better that the light of the

developing lamp should pass through transparent glass (ruby or deep

orange) so that the flame itself is distinctly visible, instead of

through ground glass or a coloured translucent fabric. Further, the

flame of the lamp, whether gas or oil, should always be turned up to

the same height, for it is clear that if the brightness of the flame

used for making the examination is not fairly constant, all sorts of

variable results will be obtained. For this reason it is much better

to judge the opacity of negatives by artificial light than by

daylight, the intensity of the latter being so variable. A paraffin

lamp with a circular wick and a deep ruby chimney with a metal cap

at the top, answers admirably.



No general rules can be laid down; the appearance of the properly

developed image depends on the thickness of the film, the

granularity of the silver salt, the presence or absence of silver

iodide, and the composition of the emulsion used. Experience only is

of value, and the best way to secure uniformly satisfactory results,

is to keep as far as possible to one brand of plates. With some

plates, for example, very little of the image should appear at the

back of the plate, with others the greater part of the image must be

distinctly visible there.



Sometimes, especially when using small sizes of plates, it is not

easy to tell whether all the necessary detail in the shadows has

been brought out, and this is an important matter, for if the small

negatives are to be used for making enlarged negatives or prints, or

lantern slides, there should be very little clear glass indeed even

in the deepest shadows of the subject. As a rule it may be said that

when every part of the image is at least gray the maximum possible

amount of detail has been brought out. If the greyness begins to

spread to the margins of the plate where it has been protected by

the rebate of the dark slide, general fog is being produced, and, as

a rule, little will be gained, but much may be lost, by continuing

the development for any considerable time after this is observed.

When development is completed the developer is poured off, the plate

is well rinsed under the tap or in two or three changes of water,

and is then ready for fixing.





DEVELOPMENT WITH PYRO-AMMONIA.



This method of development has the advantage that the constituents

can be kept in concentrated solutions, considerable modifications in

the composition of the developer can be made very readily and the

negatives obtained are of excellent printing quality. On the other

hand it cannot be satisfactorily employed with certain brands of

rapid plates, because with them it has a tendency to produce general

fog, and with some other plates, especially when they are old, it

has a tendency to produce what is known as green fog.



Three solutions are prepared:--



                 REDUCER.



  Pyrogallic acid                 1 oz. or  10 parts

  Potassium metabisulphite[1]     1 oz. or  10 parts

  Water, to make up to           10 oz. or 100 parts



                 ACCELERATOR.



  Ammonia                         1 oz. or  10 parts

  Water, to make up to           10 oz. or 100 parts



                 RESTRAINER.



  Ammonium bromide                1 oz. or  10 parts

  Water, to make up to           10 oz. or 100 parts



     [1] The metabisulphite is dissolved in about 8 oz. (80 parts)

         of water with the aid of heat, and the pyrogallic acid is

         then added. When the liquid has cooled it is made up to 10

         oz. (100 parts) by addition of water, the whole being well

         mixed by shaking.



For each ounce of developer, take 20 minims of reducer, 20 minims of

restrainer and 40 minims of accelerator, and make up to 1 oz. with

water. With some plates 60 minims of accelerator and 30 minims of

restrainer may be used, but any greater proportion of accelerator

has considerable tendency to produce general fog. On the other hand

the proportion of restrainer can often be increased with advantage

since, unless the amount added is very large, its chief effect is to

prevent general fog; 30 minims of restrainer to 40 minims of

accelerator, or 40 minims of accelerator to 60 minims of restrainer

are proportions that can be recommended. Too low a proportion of

bromide should be carefully avoided.



It is very important to ascertain, by careful trial with each brand

of plates that is to be used, what is the maximum proportion of

ammonia that can safely be added, and what proportion of bromide to

ammonia is necessary in order to prevent general fog. As a rule, the

more rapid the plates the smaller is the quantity of ammonia that

can be used with safety.



By far the best plan is to keep development well under control by

adding only part of the accelerator at the beginning of development

and adding the rest as circumstances require.



For each ounce of developer take 20 minims of pyro solution and make

up to the required bulk with water. In another measure mix for each

ounce of developer 40 minims of bromide solution and 60 minims of

ammonia solution, and regard this as the maximum quantity that can

be added with that bulk of developer. Now to the diluted pyro

solution add about a quarter or one-third of the ammonia and bromide

solution, pour this mixture on the plate and observe what happens.



If the mode of appearance of the image indicates that the plate has

been correctly exposed, about half the remaining ammonia and bromide

mixture may be added to the developer at once, and the action

allowed to continue, with occasional rocking of the dish. If

development proceeds satisfactorily and, in particular, if the chief

details in the shadows begin to appear before the highest lights

have become too opaque, it is not necessary nor advisable to add the

last portion of the ammonia and bromide mixture, since the tendency

to general fog and green fog is reduced when the proportion of

ammonia is kept as low as possible. On the other hand, if the

development flags and the appearance of shadow detail is a little

tardy, the rest of the ammonia and bromide mixture must be added.



If the plate seems to be over-exposed, no more of the ammonia and

bromide mixture should be added for some time, until it is seen

whether the quantity already in the developer will suffice to

complete development. If it seems that the over-exposure has been

considerable, a further quantity of pyro solution (10 to 20 minims

per oz.) and also of bromide solution (10, 20, or 30 minims per oz.)

may be added with advantage. Development is then allowed to continue

and the negative is examined from time to time; if it is seen that

the opacity does not increase, or if sufficient detail in the deep

shadows does not appear, further small quantities of the ammonia and

bromide mixture may be added _cautiously_ until the required result

is obtained, waiting a little while to see the result of each small

addition before adding more.



When the plate behaves as if under-exposed, dilute the developer at

once with half the quantity or an equal quantity of water, according

to the degree of under-exposure indicated, and add the whole of the

ammonia and bromide mixture. These modifications should check the

rate at which the high-lights of the subject gain opacity, whilst

accelerating the appearance of the middle tones and shadows. Should

this effect not be produced, further quantities of ammonia and

bromide mixture may be added or, in extreme cases, ammonia alone,

and the developer may be still more diluted with water.



If any considerable parts of the image still show no detail, local

development with a brush may be tried as a last resource. A soft

camel's hair brush, preferably mounted in quill, is used. Some of

the ammonia and bromide mixture is placed in a vessel and diluted

with two or three times its volume of water. One corner or edge of

the plate is raised so that the part to be treated is lifted out of

the developer, the diluted ammonia and bromide mixture is applied

rapidly with the brush, and the plate is allowed to drop gently back

into the developer. The treatment may be repeated if necessary.



Should all these devices fail, the plate is hopelessly

under-exposed.



Sometimes, when working with a diluted developer as just described,

it happens that although all the necessary detail has been brought

out, the image gains in opacity very slowly. Provided that all the

required detail is visible, small quantities of pyro solution may be

added in order to gain opacity more quickly.



[Illustration: TEASELS By Carine Cadby.]



PYRO-SODA DEVELOPMENT.



When sodium carbonate is used as the alkali in place of ammonia the

developer acts somewhat more slowly and is less liable to produce

fog, especially with very rapid plates, and there is very little

tendency to produce green fog. On the other hand, variations are not

so easily made in the composition of the developer. Some people find

the absence of the smell of ammonia a decided advantage.



STOCK PYRO SOLUTION.



The same as for Pyro-Ammonia.



               DILUTE PYRO SOLUTION.[2]

  Stock pyro-solution              1 oz. or 10 parts

  Water                           10 oz. or 100 parts



               SODA SOLUTION.

  Sodium carbonate, crystallised.  1 oz. or 10 parts

  Sodium Sulphite                  1 oz. or 10 parts

  Potassium bromide               10 grains or 0.23 part

  Water to make up to[3]          10 oz. or 100 parts



     [2] No more of the dilute pyro solution should be made up

         than is likely to be used during the same day, but it will

         keep well enough for a day or two.



     [3] The sodium sulphite and carbonate are dissolved, with the

         aid of heat, in about 8 oz. (80 parts) of water, the bromide

         added, and the liquid when cold made up to 10 oz. by adding

         water.



For use mix equal parts of dilute pyro solution and soda solution

and pour over the plate.



If the exposure has been correct the image will begin to appear in

about a minute, and development is then allowed to go on with

occasional rocking of the dish, until the negative is sufficiently

opaque.



If the plate behaves as if it were under-exposed, _at once_ dilute

the developer with an equal bulk of water and pour it back over the

plate. If the high-lights continue to increase in opacity, but the

rest of the image does not appear, add some more of the soda

solution with or without some more water. Should parts of the plate

still remain blank, apply some of the soda solution to them with the

aid of a brush as described under pyro-ammonia (page 32).



If the rapid appearance of the image indicates that the plate is

over-exposed, at once pour off the developer into a measure or

mixing glass and rinse the plate well with water. Add to the

developer a small quantity of potassium bromide solution (1 in 10 of

water) which should be kept at hand for this purpose. A small

quantity of pyro stock solution may also be added. The developer is

then poured over the plate again. When the over-exposure seems to

have been considerable, the amount of potassium bromide added may

amount to 4 grains (or 40 minims of the 1 in 10 solution) per ounce

of the developer, but this proportion should not be exceeded; even

small quantities of bromide in the pyro-soda developer have a marked

influence in retarding development.



When there is reason to suspect over-exposure, not more than half

the soda solution should be added at the beginning of development,

and the rest may be added or not, as the case may require.





DEVELOPMENT WITH ORTOL.



  ORTOL SOLUTION.



  Ortol                        130 grains or 1.5 parts

  Potassium metabisulphite[4]   65 grains or 0.75 part

  Water to make up to           20 ounces or 100 parts



  SODA SOLUTION.

  The same as for pyro-soda.



     [4] See foot-note to page 30.



Mix equal parts of ortol solution and soda solution.



This developer behaves in much the same way as pyro-soda and gives

very similar results. It has the advantage, however, that it does

not stain the fingers, and has practically no tendency to produce

either fog or stain on the plates. Moreover the same quantity of

solution can be used for several plates; when the action becomes

perceptibly slower or weaker, part of the old solution is poured

away and an equal quantity of freshly mixed ortol and soda solutions

is added.



The chief differences to be observed are (1) that the different

parts of the image follow one another more rapidly than with

pyro-soda, even though the plate may have been correctly exposed,

and (2) the colour of the reduced silver is somewhat bluer than with

pyro-soda, and therefore in order to obtain the same degree of

_printing_ opacity, as distinct from visual opacity, development

must be carried a little further.



Apart from these differences, what has been said of pyro-soda holds

good for ortol soda and need not be repeated.





DEVELOPMENT WITH HYDROQUINONE (QUINOL).



  QUINOL SOLUTION.

  Hydroquinone              90 grains or    2 parts

  Sodium sulphite            1 oz.    or   10 parts

  Water to make up to       10 oz.    or  100 parts



  ALKALI SOLUTION.

  Potassium carbonate (dry)  1 oz.    or   10 parts

  Potassium bromide         20 grains or 0.46 parts

  Water to make up to       10 oz.    or  100 parts



Mix two parts of hydroquinone solution with one part of alkali

solution and one part of water, or, if a more energetic developer is

wanted, mix equal volumes of the hydroquinone and alkali solutions.

Hydroquinone is not an advantageous developer for general purposes,

but it is useful when negatives are required showing strong contrast

between the highest lights and the deepest shadows, and especially

when it is important that there should be no deposit at all in the

deepest shadows. This is the case, for example, when copying line

engravings, pen and ink drawings and similar subjects.





DEVELOPMENT WITH FERROUS OXALATE.



This method of development also is not well adapted for general

work, but it is invaluable for certain purposes. The reduced silver

has a pure grey-black colour and there is exceedingly little

tendency to produce fog of any kind. On the other hand, the

developer admits of little modification in its composition and

therefore the exposure must be fairly correct. It is also important

to avoid contamination with even minute quantities of hypo, since

this substance very readily causes stains.



  FERROUS SULPHATE SOLUTION.



  Ferrous sulphate        2-1/2 oz. or 25 parts

  Sulphuric acid          Small quantity

  Water to make up to     10 oz. or 100 parts



About three-quarters of the total quantity of water is mixed with a

small quantity (not more than 50 minims per 10 ozs., or one part per

100) of sulphuric acid, and the ferrous sulphate (proto-sulphate of

iron) which must be in clear pale green crystals without any

yellowish incrustation, is dissolved in it with the aid of a gentle

heat. After the solution has cooled, it is made up to the specified

volume with water. This solution alters when exposed to air, and

should, therefore, be kept in small (2 oz.) bottles, filled up to

the neck and tightly corked.



  OXALATE SOLUTION.



  Potassium oxalate       10 oz. or 25 parts

  Potassium bromide       40 grains or 0.23 part

  Water to make up to     40 oz. or 100 parts



For use take four parts of oxalate solution and one part of ferrous

sulphate solution, pouring the latter into the former and _not vice

versa_. In order to obtain slower action with a rather softer image

and a slightly browner deposit, the developer may be diluted with an

equal volume of water. Slower action, with slightly increased

printing contrasts, and clearer shadows, results from an increase in

the proportion of bromide.





FIXING.



After development is finished, the dark-coloured reduced silver that

forms the image remains mixed with a considerable quantity of

semi-opaque, yellowish unaltered silver bromide, which would not

only interfere with the printing, but would also gradually darken

when exposed to light. The negative must therefore be "fixed" by

dissolving out the unaltered silver bromide, and this is

accomplished by immersing the plate in a fairly strong solution of

sodium thiosulphate (formerly called sodium hyposulphite) commonly

known as "hypo." The usual strength of the fixing is as follows:



  FIXING BATH.



  Hypo (sodium thiosulphate)    10 oz. or 25 parts

  Water to make up to           40 oz. or 100 parts



A solution of double this strength is, however, not unfrequently

used, and acts more rapidly, especially in cold weather.



The developed plate, after being well rinsed with water, is placed

in the fixing bath and allowed to remain in it with frequent rocking

until the silver bromide has all been dissolved out of the film.

This is ascertained by lifting the plate out of the dish and looking

at the back by reflected light, the plate being held in front of

something dark. It is not difficult to see whether the silver

bromide has all disappeared or not, but in order to ensure complete

fixing the plate must not be taken out of the bath as soon as this

has happened, but should be left in for a few minutes longer, the

dish being rocked so that the dissolved silver salt may diffuse out

of the film into the fixing bath.



When removed from the fixing bath the plate should be allowed to

drain into the bath for a few moments and should then be washed for

five or ten minutes in running water under the tap. It is best to

put the plate in a dish standing on the sink and have a piece of

flexible indiarubber tubing reaching from the tap to within a couple

of inches or so of the top of the dish, so that the water may not

splash too much. After washing in this way, the plate is placed in

a grooved zinc rack, which is immersed in a tank (preferably of

zinc), containing sufficient water to completely cover the plates,

and here it remains until the whole batch of plates in hand has been

developed and they can all receive their final washing together. The

plates stand upright in the rack, and the entrance and exit of the

water must be so arranged that the water enters at the bottom and

overflows at the top, or, what is perhaps better, enters at the top

and is drawn off from the bottom, the waste pipe opening at the

bottom of the tank and being bent and carried upwards until its

mouth is at the level at which the water is to stand in the tank.



When running water is not available the plates may be washed in

dishes. After being well rinsed to remove the adhering hypo

solution, the plate is covered with water (about 3-1/2 oz. for a

half plate or 5 oz. for a whole plate) and allowed to remain with

frequent rocking for five or six minutes. The water is then well

drained off, a second quantity added and allowed to remain for the

same time as before, with frequent rocking, when it is poured off in

its turn. Treatment in this way with six successive quantities of

water will remove all the hypo, provided that the film has not been

treated with alum.



Another plan, rather less troublesome, but also less expeditious, is

to place the rack containing the plates in a tank not much more than

big enough to hold it, taking care that there is not less than two

inches between the lower edges of the plates and the bottom of the

tank. After standing for some time the rack and the plates are

slowly and carefully lifted out and allowed to drain, the tank

emptied and filled with fresh water, and the rack and plates then

replaced. Eight or ten successive quantities of water applied in

this way should remove all the hypo, but if there is any doubt on

this point the plates, after they are supposed to be washed and have

been removed from the tank, should be allowed to drain into a

measuring glass or into a dish, the contents of which are afterwards

transferred to a measuring glass and mixed with a small quantity of

a solution of silver nitrate. If the plates are really completely

washed nothing will happen, or at most a white precipitate will be

produced which _will remain white_ if not exposed to daylight. If,

on the other hand, the plates still retain hypo, the silver nitrate

will produce a precipitate which will gradually become orange and

eventually dark brown. Should this happen, the washing must be

continued.



[Illustration]



DRYING.--If the negatives are allowed to dry in the rack in which

they were washed, the process is slow, and sometimes if the washing

has not been complete, the middle portions of the negatives, which

dry last, are less opaque than the rest. An excellent method of

drying negatives rapidly and in such a way that no dust can fall on

the film, is to drive nails (preferably of copper) into a wall or a

board fixed against the wall, at distances apart depending on the

size of the plates. Each plate then rests, with the film

downwards, between a pair of nails, the lower corner of the plate

resting against the wall, as shown on previous page.



[Illustration: WINTER TIME ON THE ALPS. CAPT. W. DE W. ABNEY, C.B.,

F.R.S., ETC.]



ALUM BATH.--It is frequently recommended that all plates should be

immersed in a strong solution of alum, for the purpose of preventing

"frilling" by hardening the film. Its use is, however, attended with

the great disadvantage that liquids diffuse into and out of a film

so treated with much greater difficulty than in the case of an

ordinary film, and consequently if the film is alumed between

development and fixing, the fixing is not only much slower, but the

washing after fixing requires a very much longer time. If,

therefore, the alum bath is used at all, it should not be applied

until after the film has been well washed after fixing. The

following solution may be used:--



  ALUM BATH.



  Alum            1 oz. or   5 parts

  Water          20 oz. or 100 parts



If a strong solution of alum is applied to the plate for a long

time, the film may become so thoroughly hardened that it partially

loses its adhesiveness, and there is a possibility that it will

begin to peel from the glass after the negatives have been stored

for some time in a dry place. The solution given above is quite

strong enough and plates need not be immersed in it for more than

five minutes, after which they must, of course, be again well

washed. The hardening of the film, if not carried too far, no doubt

makes it less liable to be injured by abrasion and the like.



FRILLING.--It sometimes happens that during the various operations

of development, fixing and washing, the film begins to leave the

plate and rise in puckers along the edges. This is known as

"frilling," and in bad cases it may spread until a large part of the

film has detached itself from the glass. It is due to excessive or

irregular absorption of water by the gelatine, and at one time was

commonly met with, but it rarely occurs with the dry plates of the

present day. It is most likely to arise if there is any considerable

difference of temperature between the various liquids and the

wash-water, or during very hot weather when all the liquids are much

warmer than usual.



When frilling does occur, the plate must be treated carefully, so as

to avoid tearing the film, but unless it is very bad and shows a

tendency to spread, all the operations, including washing after

fixing, should be completed before any special measures are taken to

remedy the defect. On the other hand, if the frilling spreads

rapidly, the plate should be carefully rinsed two or three times

with water and placed for five minutes in the alum bath, with

occasional gentle rocking, after which it is again well washed to

remove the alum, and the various operations are completed. There is

one exception to the procedure just indicated; if the frilling

becomes bad while the plate is being fixed or during washing after

fixing, the alum must not be applied until the fixing and the

washing after fixing are completed. If something must be done in

these circumstances, the plate, after draining, but without any

previous washing, may be placed for about ten minutes in a saturated

solution of common salt. It can afterwards be put back into the

fixing bath, also without any intermediate washing, and the

remainder of the process carried through.



Although the methods just described will check the frilling, they

will not remove its effects. For this purpose the plate after its

final washing is allowed to drain thoroughly and is then immersed in

methylated alcohol, preferably of the old kind, though the new kind

can be made to do. The alcohol abstracts water from the film, which

consequently shrinks to its original size and can be pressed back

with the fingers into its proper position on the plate. Should the

film be opalescent it should be removed from the first quantity of

alcohol and placed in a second quantity, after which it should be

set up to dry. The plates should not remain too long in the alcohol

or the gelatine will contract too much.





DEFECTS IN NEGATIVES.



A perfect negative presupposes a perfect plate, correct exposure,

and correct development stopped at exactly the right time. It is

almost unnecessary to say that all these conditions are rarely

satisfied, and consequently most negatives fall more or less short

of perfection. The defects may be broadly grouped under two heads,

namely, those due to imperfections existing in the film before

exposure, and those due to defects or errors in the way in which the

plate has been treated. It will be more convenient to deal with the

latter, and larger, group first, but there is really no hard and

fast division between them.



THE NEGATIVE IS THIN, or in other words, whilst showing good

gradation, and sufficient relative contrast between the different

parts, is as a whole lacking in opacity or printing strength, and

gives prints that are deficient in vigour and contrasts. The plate

has been removed from the developer too soon, and the remedy is to

intensify the image (see p. 51). Sometimes the want of opacity is

due to the fact that the developer was too cold.



THE NEGATIVE IS TOO DENSE OR OPAQUE and consequently although

showing good contrasts and gradations, takes a long time to print,

especially on dull days. The developer has been too energetic, or

development has been continued too long; the remedy is to reduce the

image (see p. 50).



THE IMAGE IS "FLAT," or shows comparatively little contrast between

the highest lights and the deepest shadows. This may, of course, be

due to the absence of contrasts in the subject photographed; it is

commonly due to over-exposure; it may be caused by using a developer

containing too little reducer, or restrainer, or both, and too much

alkali; sometimes it arises from a defect in the quality of the

emulsion, or from the fact that the plate has been coated with an

abnormally thin film of emulsion.



THE IMAGE IS "HARD," or shows excessive contrasts between lights and

shadows, and is defective in the range of its half-tones. This is

probably due to under-exposure, but may have been aggravated by the

use of a developer containing too much bromide or too little alkali.

Local reduction (see p. 50) may partially remedy the defect.



FOG.--A more or less marked grey deposit of reduced silver extends

over the whole surface of the image. It may be due to over-exposure,

in which case the edges of the plate that have been protected by the

rebate of the dark slide usually remain clear. It may also be caused

by using a developer containing too much alkali, or too little

restrainer, or both, or by the plate having been exposed to actinic

light outside the camera, including the light from the dark-room

lamp if the glass or coloured fabric used as the screening material

is not efficient. In any of these cases the defect would be

observable up to the extreme edges of the film.



The character of the dark-room light should be tested by exposing

one half of a plate to it at a distance of say nine or twelve inches

for five or ten minutes, the other half of the plate being

protected by some opaque substance. The best plan is to put the

plate into a dark slide and draw out the shutter half-way. After

exposure the plate is treated with a developer in the usual manner,

and it can then be seen whether or no the light has exerted any

action on the plate.



Slight general fog may as a rule be neglected, but if the amount of

fog is at all considerable the plate should be treated with a

reducer, and afterwards the image can, if necessary, be intensified.



GREEN FOG.--The surface of the film shows a peculiar brilliant green

or yellowish-green lustrous appearance, generally in patches, when

examined by reflected light, but is more or less distinctly pink

when the plate is looked through. This effect is rarely observed

except when pyro-ammonia has been used as the developer, and it most

frequently occurs with old plates, especially if development has

been long continued or has been forced by the addition of

comparatively large quantities of ammonia.



If the green fog is only slight it does not affect the prints made

from the negative, but in bad cases the prints have a patchy

appearance and are less deeply printed at those points where the

green fog is worst. Two methods are available for the removal of

green fog.



In one of these the plate, after being fixed and washed, is placed

in a hypo solution of half the strength of the ordinary fixing bath,

and to this hypo solution is added a very small quantity of a

solution of potassium ferricyanide, and the mixture is allowed to

act on the plate for some time, the dish being rocked occasionally.

The green fog will gradually disappear and some more of the

ferricyanide may be added, if necessary, to secure this end, but it

is important to keep the proportion of ferricyanide as low as

possible, otherwise the image itself will be reduced. For this

reason, if it is seen or suspected that the green fog is likely to

be bad, development should be carried a little farther than usual in

order to allow for the slight reduction that accompanies the removal

of the green fog.



The other plan is to immerse the plate in a dilute solution of

ferric chloride (perchloride of iron) until the green fog has been

completely bleached, then wash, first in a dilute solution of oxalic

acid and afterwards in water, and finally treat with a developer,

preferably ferrous oxalate. The green fog is converted into a very

fine grey deposit which is almost invisible and has no appreciable

effect on the printing qualities of the negative.



BLACK SPOTS may be due to particles of dirt that have been allowed

to lodge on the film during one or other of the operations, or

during drying. They may also be due to particles in the emulsion,

and in the latter case are generally round and sharply defined.



BLACK MARKS of the nature of irregular streaks, looking, so to

speak, like black scratches, are generally due to mechanical

abrasion of the film. Pressure produces a developable image similar

to that produced by the action of light.



BLACK BANDS, indistinct or nebulous at the edges, are sometimes

caused during the coating of the plate with the emulsion, in which

case they, as a rule, extend all the way along or across the plate.

More commonly they are due to defects in the hinges of the dark

slides, which may produce the bands either by allowing light to pass

through, or by giving off exhalations that affect the plates if they

are allowed to remain in the dark slide for a long time. If the

bands are due to the hinges, they will, of course, correspond with

them in position, and if the hinge is double, in the distance

between them.



TRANSPARENT BANDS, or bands showing less opacity than the rest of

the image, are sometimes caused by exhalations from the material

forming the hinges of the dark slides.



TRANSPARENT SPOTS if small ("pinholes"), are generally due to the

presence of particles of dust on the surface of the plate when it

was exposed. Prevention lies, of course, in carefully dusting the

plate and the dark slide with a soft, clean, dry camel's hair brush,

before putting the former into the latter. If the spots are larger

and circular, they are due either to the formation of air bubbles on

the surface of the plate during development, or to the presence in

the film of insensitive particles.



UNEVEN OPACITY OR DENSITY, varying gradually from one end or side of

the plate to the opposite end or side, is due to uneven coating of

the plate. If there is a distinctly defined patch, less opaque than

the rest, the plate was not properly covered by the developing

solution.



STAINS.--A uniform stain, of a yellowish or brown colour, is

produced when the pyro developer contains too small a proportion of

sulphite or is allowed to act for a very long time. Such a stain is

rarely observed with the other developers mentioned above. The pyro

stain can be more or less completely removed by immersing the plate

for some time, with repeated rocking, in the alum solution given

above, 1 drachm of sulphuric acid being added to every 10 ounces.

The plate must afterwards be well washed in soft water. Similar

stains in patches may be caused by using dirty dishes or a developer

that has become turbid by being frequently used.



DEEP YELLOW-ORANGE OR BROWN STAINS, appearing gradually in patches

or all over the negative, some time after it has been fixed, and

washed, and dried, are due either to imperfect fixing or to

incomplete washing after fixing. There is no practicable remedy.



[Illustration: DOCK By Carine Cadby.]



HALATION.--When the subject photographed includes some part much

more brightly lighted than the rest, such as a window in an interior

subject, the details of the bright part are not only lost, but the

image of it seems to spread in all directions, obliterating the

details of the surrounding portions. The effect is especially

noticeable when the subject includes dark parts which necessitate a

somewhat long exposure. A window at the end of a long dimly lighted

interior, or dark trees against a bright sky are cases in point. The

effect is really due to the fact that the sensitive film is not

perfectly opaque, and some of the incident light passes through the

film and is reflected from the back surface of the glass on to the

under side of the film, producing a blurred image superposed, as it

were, on the normal image formed at the surface of the film by the

action of the direct light. The effect is known as "halation." It is

prevented by having a perfectly opaque film, which is a condition

difficult to realize in practice, and which, moreover, introduces

certain other disadvantages. It is also prevented by coating the

back of the plate with some substance that will absorb the rays that

have passed through the film, and so prevent their being reflected

back against the under side of the film. The substance used must

either be opaque or must have a deep orange, brown, or red colour,

and it must have the same refractive index as the glass, otherwise

the reflection will not be prevented. For practical convenience it

must also be easily applied and easily removed. Many substances have

been recommended but nothing is so good as caramel, prepared by the

action of heat on sugar. In order to get the mixture to dry

completely after it has been applied, a somewhat troublesome process

of purification is necessary, but caramel specially prepared for the

purpose can now be obtained from dealers in photographic materials.

The caramel (which is a solid substance) is dissolved in just enough

water to make a thick syrup, which is carefully applied to the back

of the plates in a thin layer by means of a flat brush.



If the caramel does not dry properly the solution may be thoroughly

mixed with about one quarter (or more) of its weight of very finely

powdered burnt sienna or burnt umber, "ground in water."



After being coated, the plates require some time to dry, and must,

of course, be carefully protected from light. If the dark-room is

thoroughly dark, the plates may be put up to dry in the same manner

as negatives (see page 40), but if the dark-room is not suitable,

some sort of drying box must be used.



After exposure and before development the backing is removed with a

damp sponge; if caramel only is used in a form completely soluble in

water, it need not be removed unless a developer is being used that

is to be applied to several plates in succession.





REDUCTION.



When a negative is too opaque or dense it must be reduced by

dissolving away part of the silver that forms the image. The same

process is also applied for the removal of general fog, sometimes

with a view to subsequent intensification.



The simplest solution to use for this purpose is known as the Howard

Farmer reducer and is a solution of hypo mixed with a small quantity

of potassium ferricyanide (red prussiate of potash).



  FERRICYANIDE SOLUTION.



  Potassium ferricyanide       1 oz. or 10 parts

  Water to make up            10 oz. or 100 parts



This solution must be protected from light if it is to be kept for

any length of time.



The negative which, if it has been previously dried, must be soaked

in water for some time until it is thoroughly and uniformly wetted,

is placed in some fresh hypo solution (the ordinary fixing-bath

solution diluted with an equal volume of water) to which a small

quantity of the ferricyanide solution has been added, and the dish

is rocked repeatedly to ensure uniform action. The rapidity of the

reducing action depends on the proportion of ferricyanide solution

added, and it is very important not to add too much, otherwise the

process gets out of control and reduction goes too far. The image

should be carefully watched and the plate removed from the solution

and rapidly washed before the apparent reduction is quite as great

as it is intended to be. It is much better to stop too soon than too

late, because if it is found that a little further reduction is

necessary, the plate can be again immersed in the hypo and

ferricyanide.



The ferricyanide reducer can be applied locally for reducing

high-lights, halated windows, etc., and this is often very valuable,

especially in the case of under-exposed negatives. A small quantity

of hypo and ferricyanide solution is mixed in a measuring glass or

some other suitable vessel. The plate is immersed in plain hypo

solution in a white dish for a short time and is then raised by one

corner or one edge until the part to be reduced is above the

solution. The mixture of hypo and ferricyanide is carefully applied

with a camel's hair brush to the parts that are too opaque, and

after a few moments the plate is allowed to slip back into the hypo

solution and the dish is rocked. If the reduction is not sufficient,

the same proceeding is gone through as often as necessary. The

reducer should not be allowed to act too long before putting the

plate back into the hypo, otherwise the reduction may spread further

than is desired. Further, the reducer must not be too strong

(_i.e._, contain too much ferricyanide), otherwise it will produce

brownish stains and the action may be too energetic.



The other reducer is known as Belitzski's reducer, and is made up as

follows:--



  Ferric potassium oxalate        1 oz. or    5 parts[5]

  Sodium sulphite                 1 oz. or    4 parts

  Oxalic acid                   1/4 oz. or    1 part

  Hypo solution (25 in 100)       5 oz. or   25 parts

  Water                          20 oz. or  100 parts



     [5] The formula in "parts" does not strictly correspond with

         that in ounces, but the difference is immaterial.



The constituents must be dissolved in water in the order given. The

solution can be used at once and it keeps fairly well if protected

from light, in well corked bottles filled up to the neck.





INTENSIFICATION.



Intensification is a process in which the opacity of the image is

increased by adding some fresh matter, metallic or otherwise, to the

reduced silver that constitutes the developed image.



The usual plan is to bleach the image by means of a solution of

mercuric chloride (mercury perchloride or corrosive sublimate),

which converts the dark-coloured silver into a white mixture of

silver chloride and mercurous chloride, and this is subsequently

treated with some re-agent which will reconvert the image into a

dark product of greater opacity than the original.



It is absolutely essential to successful intensification that the

negative be completely fixed and completely washed after fixing, for

any trace of hypo left in the film will give rise to brown stains.

It is also important, in order to prevent stains of another sort and

to secure uniform action, that the mercuric chloride solution be

mixed with a small quantity of hydrochloric acid. Too much acid will

cause frilling. If the negative has been dried it must be immersed

in water for, as a rule, not less than half-an-hour, in order that

it may be thoroughly and uniformly wetted.



  MERCURIC CHLORIDE SOLUTION.



  Mercuric chloride         1 oz.          or   5 parts

  Hydrochloric acid         1-1/2 drachms  or   1 part

  Water to make up to      20 oz.          or 100 parts



When uniform intensification is required the negative is allowed to

remain in this solution until it is completely bleached. If,

however, it is desired to intensify the shadows more than the

high-lights, the plate should be removed from the solution as soon

as the shadows have bleached, and should be rapidly washed in order

to stop the action on the more opaque parts of the image.



In either case the negative must be thoroughly washed after

bleaching, and the water used must be soft water. Hard water tends

to produce a precipitate of the mercury salt in the film, which may

subsequently lead to stain or fog.



Perhaps the best plan of all, when constant results are desired, is

to treat the bleached negative with the ferrous oxalate developer,

which will gradually convert the white image into a black one, after

which the plate is thoroughly washed and dried. It is recommended

that the first water used for washing should be slightly acidified

with oxalic acid.



Instead of using ferrous oxalate the bleached plate may be treated

with a weak solution of ortol or metol to which some sodium

carbonate (soda crystals) solution has been added, but _no

sulphite_. After the image has blackened completely the plate is

washed.



With any of these methods if the first intensification is not

sufficient, the plate may be again bleached with the mercury

solution and the process repeated.



An old method, frequently used, is to treat the bleached plate with

dilute ammonia, which converts the white image into a dark brown one

of very considerable printing opacity. The results are often very

good, but are somewhat uncertain, since the precise effect obtained

depends on the strength of the ammonia solution and the time during

which it is allowed to act. With somewhat strong ammonia, allowed to

act for a fairly long time, part of the intensification first

produced is removed. This affects the shadows more strongly than the

lights and the result is to increase the contrast of the negative,

which is very useful for certain purposes.



The negatives intensified with mercury solution followed by ammonia

are more liable to spontaneous change and deterioration than those

intensified with mercury solution followed by one of the developers.

The latter, in fact, if properly washed, may safely be regarded as

permanent.



URANIUM INTENSIFIER.--A very considerable degree of intensification

can be obtained by the use of the uranium intensifier, which is very

different in its mode of action, and is a little uncertain in its

results. A solution containing potassium ferricyanide and a uranium

salt, generally the nitrate, is applied to the negative, and a

deposit of a deep orange-red colour is formed upon the silver image

and very greatly increases its printing opacity. The great

difficulty is to prevent this deposit forming on the whole of the

film, and it is absolutely necessary that every trace of hypo should

be washed out of the film. The addition of acetic acid to the

solution not only promotes uniformity of action, but also helps to

keep the shadows of the image clear.



             FERRICYANIDE SOLUTION.

  The same as for the ferricyanide reducer.





               URANIUM SOLUTION.

  Uranium nitrate            1 oz. or    10 parts

  Water to make up to       10 oz. or   100 parts





               THE INTENSIFIER.

  Uranium solution (1:10)         1 drachm  or   5 parts

  Ferricyanide solution (1:10)    1 drachm  or   5 parts

  Acetic acid (glacial)           2 drachms or  10 parts

  Water to make up to             2-1/2 oz.   or 100 parts



The negative is placed in this solution and allowed to remain with

occasional rocking until the degree of intensification is sufficient,

which can only be learnt by experience. If it is seen that the

deposit is beginning to form on the clear parts of the negative, the

plate should be at once removed. After intensification the plates are

well washed. If the water is "hard" the intensification will be

slightly reduced during washing, and this is often useful in removing

a slight stain over the whole of the plate. Treatment with water

containing a small quantity of ammonia or sodium carbonate removes

the whole of the deposit, but leaves the original image slightly

reduced and also partially altered in composition.





VARNISHING.



A negative after been thoroughly dried may be used for printing

without any further treatment, especially if only a few prints are

required and the ordinary ready sensitized papers or emulsion

papers are used. It is, however, better to protect the negative from

mechanical as well as chemical injury by means of a film of hard

varnish or collodion.



Many excellent negative varnishes can now be purchased, and the

general mode of application is the same. The negative must be

thoroughly dry, and in order to secure this and to make the varnish

flow more easily, the negative is very carefully heated in front of

a fire or over a small stove until it is just warm, but not hot. The

negative is best supported by means of a pneumatic holder held in

the left hand, and a fairly large pool of varnish (the exact amount

can only be learnt by experience) is poured on the plate somewhat

towards the right-hand top corner, and by carefully tilting the

plate it is made to run first to the nearest corner, then along the

edge to the further left-hand corner down to the nearer left-hand

corner, and back to the right-hand bottom corner, from which it is

poured into a bottle. The plate is gently rocked whilst it drains

into the bottle, and as soon as the varnish ceases to drop the plate

is again carefully warmed until the back of it is just too hot for

the back of the hand to bear, after which it is placed in a rack to

cool.



It is necessary that the varnish should be quite clear and free from

any solid particles, and if necessary it must be filtered through a

plug of cotton wool moistened with alcohol and placed in the apex of

a glass funnel which is resting in the neck of a clean and dry

bottle. Since dust may fall into the varnish whilst it is on the

negative, it is the best plan to pour the excess of varnish off the

negative into a second bottle instead of back into the first, out of

which it was poured. To put it in another way, one bottle should be

kept for the clear varnish, and a second bottle for the varnish

poured off the plate. When the second bottle is full, its contents

are filtered into the first bottle for use again.



Instead of varnish, a film of collodion, toughened by the addition

of a few drops of castor oil, and known as "leather" collodion, may

be used. The collodion is applied to the plate in the same way as

varnish except that the plate is not warmed.



                                        _C. H. Bothamley._



[Illustration]









_Lenses._





[Illustration]



Photographs of flat objects such as leaves, lace, drawings, etc.,

can be made by simply putting the object on the sensitive surface

and exposing the arrangement to light. But this method will not

serve if the photograph is wanted of any other size than the

original, nor with solid objects of any size, except perhaps in the

production of full-size profiles of faces. It is therefore quite the

exception in photography to "print" directly from the object itself,

and the only alternative is to produce an image on the sensitive

surface.



All illuminated objects reflect light and so become for practical

purposes sources of light, just as the moon shines, as we say,

although it only shines because it is shone upon by the sun. The

simplest source of light to consider is a point of light, and if we

can get a dot of light on a white surface from a point of light we

have at once an image of that point of light. The smaller the dot

the sharper or more perfect is the image, the larger the dot the

more diffused or fuzzy is the image. It is impossible by any known

means to get the dot so small that it is an actual point, that would

be absolute perfection, and on the other hand there is no size of

the dot at which it can be definitely said that it ceases to be an

image. Every point of an illuminated object is a point of light, and

fine definition consists in keeping these points separate in the

image. So far as the dots overlap they are confused. Confusion, or

diffusion, or fuzziness is sometimes desirable, as for example in a

portrait, which may be excellent although it is impossible to

distinguish in the picture the individual hairs on the person's

head.



[Illustration: Fig. 1.]



The simplest means for getting an image is a small hole in an opaque

screen. In fig. 1, two points of light, A and B, shine through the

hole in the screen S and produce two dots of light, _a_ and _b_, on

the surface T. The two pencils of light do not practically interfere

with each other although they pass through the same small hole, nor

would any greater number; so that an illuminated object, which may

be regarded as consisting of an infinite number of points of light,

would give an image on the surface T. The disadvantages of a small

hole, or "pinhole," for the production of images are (1) it must be

so small that it lets very little light through and therefore gives

a very feeble image, (2) that it can never give a sharp image. The

first disadvantage is obvious. With regard to the second, a little

consideration will show that the image of a point must be larger

than the hole itself, it is always larger though it may have a

central brighter part that is smaller. If the hole is reduced in

size beyond a certain limit, it gives an increased spreading of

light on the surface, so that a sharp image can never be produced.



[Illustration: Fig. 2.]



Now the function of a lens is to obviate these drawbacks as far as

possible; namely, to let more light through and form a brighter

image, and to give sharper definition. In figure 2, the lens L

collects all the light that falls upon it from the point B, and

condenses it to the point _b_ on the surface T. The light from the

point A that falls on the lens is also condensed and would be

brought to a point or "focus" at _a_ beyond the surface T, but on

the surface the light forms a patch of considerable size. Suppose

that the lens is thirty times the diameter of the pinhole its area

is 900 times as large, and the light that falls upon it is 900 times

as much as the light that passes through the hole. Such an enormous

gain of light is worth so much that photographers willingly put up

with the very many imperfections of lenses for the sake of it, and

if to this gain there is added the superior definition that is

possible, it will be seen that lenses are indispensable to the

photographer. To take a Daguerreotype portrait with a pinhole might

have required several days if not weeks exposure of the plate and

therefore would have been impossible, so that the gain in brightness

of image is a great deal more than a mere convenience.



It will be observed in figure 1 that both points of light, A and B

produce images on the surface T, although they are at different

distances from it, but in fig. 2, although the effect of the lens is

to concentrate the light from both points to two other points, one

of these is beyond the surface T. This is a disadvantage inherent in

lenses. They have so many other imperfections or "aberrations" that

it is desirable to consider these separately. The reader should bear

in mind that the one aim of opticians in perfecting lenses is to

concentrate as much light as possible from each point in the object

to a corresponding point, or as small as possible a dot, in the

image, and the image should be flat because the plates used in

photography are flat.



[Illustration: Fig. 3.]



_Spherical Aberration._--The surfaces of lenses are always ground to

spherical curves, and this fact makes it impossible for a single

lens, such as that shown in figure 2, to bring to a point all the

light that falls upon it from a point. If a pencil of light passes

through a piece of glass with sloping sides it is bent or

"refracted" towards the thicker part of the glass, and the greater

the angle of inclination of the two sides the more is it refracted

from its original path. In figure 3 it is clear that the two sides

of the lens shown in section are inclined to each other at a

continually increasing angle as they approach each other at the

edges of the lens. The refracting effect of the lens increases from

the centre outwards, and it increases to a greater extent than is

necessary to bring the incident light to a point. The focus of the

pencils of light that pass through the edges of the lens is nearer

to the lens than the focus of the pencils that pass through its

central part. In the figure two foci are shown, _a_ and _b_, but of

course, in fact, intermediate parts of the lens produce intermediate

foci, and what should be a point in the image, is spread out into a

line on the axis of the lens, and all along this line is surrounded

with the light that either is coming to a focus or that has come to

a focus and has spread out again. On a screen placed at _b_ there

would be a point of light surrounded by a halo, while at _a_, nearer

the lens, the central focus or point is surrounded by a brighter or

more condensed light, and the appearance is of a circular patch of

light with a brighter boundary. This is positive spherical

aberration. Negative spherical aberration is due to over correction,

the focus of the light passing through the margins being furthest

from the lens, and the appearances on a screen are of course

reversed.



_Chromatic Aberration._--When light is refracted, that is bent out

of its original path by a single piece of glass, it is not refracted

as a whole, but each constituent behaves as if none other were

present. Ordinary white light or daylight is a mixture of many

coloured lights as seen in the rainbow, and when refracted, the blue

is bent more than the green, the green more than the yellow, and the

yellow more than the red. So that using a single lens the focus of

the blue light is nearer the lens than the focus of the red light

and the others come in between. In figure 4 this is represented in

an exaggerated degree to make it more distinct. It will be observed

that a screen placed at the focus of the blue light will show a

reddish margin and if removed further from the lens the margin or

halo will be bluish.



[Illustration: Fig. 4.]



These two aberrations, spherical and chromatic _were_ the principal

faults that opticians had to deal with, because they affect the

whole of the image, even the very central parts. But in photography

it is necessary to get an image of a very large size as compared

with the focal length of the lens, and there are some faults that

only begin to show themselves at a little distance from the centre

of the image and increase as the distance from the centre is

greater. These aberrations were, practically speaking, incurable

until a few years ago, but as recent optical advances have provided

kinds of glass by the use of which they may be eliminated, or nearly

so, they have become of practical importance. They are astigmatism

and curvature of field.



_Astigmatism and Curvature of Field._--If a diagram of suitable size

is made with a series of concentric circles and radial lines upon

it, and the centre of it is arranged exactly opposite the centre of

the lens, and in a line with the centre of the focussing screen, the

screen and diagram being parallel, then if the lens suffers from

astigmatism it will be found impossible to get the outer circles and

the radial lines where they cross them simultaneously focussed.

Where this difficulty begins the astigmatism begins, and the greater

the difference there is between the focal planes of the radial lines

and the circles, the greater is the astigmatism. It will probably

be found with any of the older types of lenses that neither is in

focus at the same time that the centre of the diagram is, but that

the screen must be racked in; this is due to curvature of field, and

the difference between the curvature of field for the circles and

the radial lines is due to astigmatism. In the older lenses a

flatter field could only be obtained by the introduction of

astigmatism, but now by the employment of the new glasses made at

Jena, it is possible to practically eliminate astigmatism, and still

keep the field flat.



[Illustration: Fig. 5.]



_The Development of Photographic Lenses._--When photography was

first practised the best lenses available were those made for use as

telescope objectives, and they had to be used with a small diaphragm

to get good definition over a sufficient field. With the slow

processes then in vogue a more rapid lens was much desired, and

Voigtlander introduced a "portrait" lens constructed according to

the results of the calculations of Professor Petzval. This portrait

lens is still very largely used, and figure 5 will serve to show its

general character and will be a guide to the putting of one together

correctly if it has been taken to pieces for cleaning. A rapid lens

such as this could not cover a sufficiently large field for

landscape work, so that single lenses were still used for work in

which rapidity was not of very great importance. Single lenses were

improved, and other kinds of lenses were introduced from time to

time, but it was not till 1866 that the "rapid rectilinears" or

"rapid aplanats," called later "rapid symmetricals," and by

innumerable other names according to the fancies of the makers, were

introduced. Probably no lens has been made in such large numbers as

this.



At about the same time, Dallmeyer introduced his portrait lens in

which the position of the convex and concave elements of the back

combination is reversed, the concave lens being outside, and this

gives the photographer the opportunity of screwing it back a little,

and so introducing a measurable amount of spherical aberration which

has the effect of modifying the otherwise exceedingly fine

definition at the centre of the field, and giving a greater depth of

definition.



In 1881, Messrs. Abbe & Schott began a series of experiments in the

manufacture of optical glasses, and they were so successful in making

new and useful varieties, that an optical glass factory was

eventually established at Jena, by Schott & Co. By the use of these

newer glasses the limitations that had previously restricted

opticians were removed, and it became possible to correct astigmatism

and secure a flat field at the same time. Zeiss of Jena, towards the

end of 1890, introduced his first series of "anastigmats." The

"concentric" lens of Ross was introduced in 1892, a lens which

probably remains unsurpassed for flatness of field and freedom from

astigmatism; but as spherical aberration is present to a notable

degree, an aperture of about _f_/22 is the largest that gives sharp

definition. The "double anastigmat" of Goerz of Berlin was put on the

market in 1893. It is a symmetrical lens, and in this different from

the Zeiss anastigmats that preceded it. It consists of two similar

combinations, each of three lenses cemented together. The unsurpassed

qualities of this lens stimulated other opticians to seek to rival

it, and there appeared similar lenses with four and even five lenses

in each combination, besides other lenses that are more or less a

copy of the double anastigmat. One of the most notable of these is

the "satz-anastigmat" of Zeiss, each combination consisting of four

lenses cemented together and forming an excellent single lens. These

combinations are interchangeable in the same mount so that with, for

example, one mount and three lenses, six different focal lengths can

be obtained, as the lenses may be used singly or any two together as

a doublet.



The "Cooke" lens is remarkable for the simple means by which the

various corrections are made, consisting as it does of only three

single lenses separated from each other. Obviously it must be used

entire. These lenses do not cover so large a plate in proportion to

their focal lengths as most of the other anastigmats, but perform

excellently over the plates for which they are constructed.



The "stigmatic" of Dallmeyer is the latest lens of general utility.

It gives good definition to the margin of the circle of light that

it transmits, reduction of aperture being necessary, when its full

field is employed, to get equality of illumination rather than to

improve the marginal definition. Its two combinations are different,

and either may be used alone as a single lens, giving focal lengths

of approximately one-and-a-half and twice the focal length of the

whole lens.



The "planar" of Zeiss introduced just as we write, is a symmetrical

doublet characterized by a very large aperture, from _f_/3.6 to

_f_/4 up to 10 inches in focal length, and a little smaller above

that. It is therefore comparable with portrait lenses. Although it

is symmetrical, a single combination cannot with advantage be used

alone as a single lens. Telephotographic lenses are subsequently

referred to.



The one aim of opticians in improving photographic lenses has been

to get good definition all over a comparatively large flat surface

without having to use small apertures. A defining power on the axis

of the lens, that is, at the centre of the field, far exceeding what

can be taken practical advantage of in ordinary photography, has

long been possible. But until recently, the defining power always

rapidly deteriorated as the distance from the centre was increased.

But to judge of the quality of a lens, or to compare one lens with

another, there are other matters that must be understood, and these

we shall proceed to consider. Focal length, aperture and image angle

are the chief details concerning lenses, granting that the

aberrations referred to above are satisfactorily corrected.



_Focal length._--The focal length or focal distance of a thin lens

is the distance between it and the point to which it converges

parallel rays. The rays of light are parallel when they issue from

an object at an infinite distance. For ordinary practical purposes,

any object, that is not nearer than a thousand focal lengths of the

lens may be regarded as at an infinite distance, that is the image

of an object so far off, and the image of the sun or stars (which

are situated at the nearest approach to an infinitely great distance

that we know of) would if separately focussed give an inappreciably

small difference of position of the focussing screen. But no

photographic lens is very thin. The measurement from the back

surface of the lens to the screen, when focussed on a distant

object, is called the "back focus," but this is of no use whatever

except as to the determining of the camera length necessary. The

"equivalent focal length" is the focal length (or focal distance) of

a thin lens that would give the same effect, so far as focal length

is concerned, as the lens in question. When the simple expression

"focal length" is used, it always refers to the equivalent focal

length. The single word "focus" is sometimes used erroneously

instead of "focal length."



The focal length of all lenses (except to a very small extent, with

single or so-called "landscape" lenses) is proportional to the

linear dimension of the image that it gives under similar

conditions. For example, a lens of 6 inches focal length will give

just the same amount of subject on a quarter plate that a lens of 12

inches focal length will give on a whole plate, because the linear

measurement of the whole plate is exactly double that of the quarter

plate. The easiest way to compare the focal lengths of two lenses,

is to focus both on a fairly distant object or view, and to measure

in the image the distance between two fixed points in both cases.

The proportion between these measurements is the proportion between

the focal lengths of the lenses. By this method the focal length of

any lens can easily be determined if one has a lens of known focal

length.



If a lens is first focussed on a distant object, and the focussing

screen is then moved back until the image of any object is of the

same size as the object, the distance travelled by the focussing

screen is exactly the focal length of the lens. It is however

exceedingly difficult to get at the same time an image of an exactly

predetermined size, and to secure the very best definition, so that

it is more convenient to get the image as near as it happens to come

to the size of the object and then to allow for the difference, as

then nothing interferes with the operation of focussing. The best

near object to use is an accurately divided scale, and the details

wanted in addition to those mentioned above are the comparative

lengths of the image and the object. To get these, two fine marks

are made on the focussing screen, and the distance between these is

the length of the image. The scale is focussed with critical

exactness and so that it falls over these marks, then the amount of

the scale represented between the marks can be measured, and the

divisions counted for the length of the object. The distance over

which the focussing screen was moved between the two focussings is

to be multiplied by the length of the object and divided by the

length of the image, and the result is the focal length of the lens.



_Aperture._--The "aperture" of a lens is the diameter of the

cylinder of light that it can receive and transmit. If the diaphragm

is in front of the lens, the hole in the diaphragm is the aperture,

but if the diaphragm is behind a part of the lens, so that the

incident light passes through a lens first, the hole in the

diaphragm is not the "aperture," the "aperture" is larger because

the lens condenses the light before it gets to the diaphragm. The

aperture of any lens can be measured by focussing a distant object,

then replacing the focussing screen by a sheet of cardboard with a

pinhole in the middle of it. In a dark-room a light must be placed

behind the pinhole, and a bit of ground glass held in front of the

lens. A disc of light will be seen on the ground glass and the

diameter of this is the diameter of the aperture, or simply, the

"aperture," with the diaphragm employed.



_Rapidity._--The rapidity of a lens depends almost wholly on its

focal length and aperture. The thickness of the glass makes a little

difference, and at every surface in contact with air there is loss

by reflection, but these and analogous matters are of comparatively

little importance, and as they are uncertain and cannot be

determined it is customary to refer rapidity to the focal length and

aperture only. The aperture found, that is, the diameter of the

effective incident cylinder of parallel rays, should be divided into

the focal length, and the diaphragm corresponding to the aperture

should then be marked with a fractional expression indicating the

proportion of aperture to focal length. Thus if the aperture is one

eighth the focal length, it is marked _f_/8, if a sixteenth _f_/16,

and so on. All lenses with the same aperture as so marked may be

regarded as of equal rapidity whatever their focal lengths may be.

Now the more rapid a lens is the shorter the exposure that it is

necessary to give for any subject, and the exposure required is

proportional to the square of the figure in the expressions as given

above. Namely 8 and 16 squared give 64 and 256 which are as one to

four, the proportional exposures required. Or we may say that 8 to

16 are as 1 to 2 and square these and get 1 to 4 the proportional

exposures.



[Illustration: Fig. 6.]



The best way to mark stops is, for example, _f_/8 and _f_/16, as

these expressions are universally understood, but some persons think

that the relative rapidities or intensities are better, others

prefer to express the relative exposure necessary, and every system

of numbering on these plans has a unit which is merely empirical,

not one of them adopting the only true or scientific unit of _f_/1.



Zeiss has recently changed his unit from _f_/100 to _f_/50.

Dallmeyer marks some of his lenses now with the practical

expression. The following table may be of service to those who

happen to have lenses with their diaphragms marked on any of these

empirical systems.



  -------------------------------------------------------------------

         |     Royal    |            |          |         |         |

         | Photographic |            |  Paris   |  Zeiss  | Zeiss   |

    _f_/ |   Society.   | Dallmeyer. | Congress.|  (old). | (new).  |

  -------------------------------------------------------------------

    3.16 |              |      1     |    1/10  |         |         |

    3.2  |              |            |          |  1024   |   256   |

    4    |       1      |            |          |         |         |

    5    |              |      2.5   |    1/4   |         |         |

    4.5  |              |            |          |   512   |   128   |

    5.66 |       2      |            |          |         |         |

    6.3  |              |      4     |    4/10  |   256   |    64   |

    7.07 |              |      5     |    1/2   |         |         |

    8    |       4      |            |          |         |         |

    8.66 |              |      7.5   |    3/4   |         |         |

    9    |              |            |          |   128   |    32   |

   10    |              |     10     |     1    |         |         |

   11.3  |       8      |            |          |         |         |

   12.25 |              |     15     |    1.5   |         |         |

   12.5  |              |            |          |    64   |    16   |

   14.14 |              |     20     |    2     |         |         |

   15.81 |              |     25     |    2.5   |         |         |

   16    |      16      |            |          |         |         |

   17.32 |              |     30     |    3     |         |         |

   18    |              |            |          |    32   |     8   |

   20    |              |     40     |    4     |         |         |

   22.36 |              |     50     |    5     |         |         |

   22.6  |      32      |            |          |         |         |

   25    |              |            |          |    16   |     4   |

   27.36 |              |     75     |    7.5   |         |         |

   31.62 |              |    100     |   10     |         |         |

   32    |      64      |            |          |         |         |

   36    |              |            |          |     8   |     2   |

   38.7  |              |    150     |   15     |         |         |

   44.72 |              |    200     |   20     |         |         |

   45.2  |     128      |            |          |         |         |

   50    |              |    250     |   25     |     4   |     1   |

   54.77 |              |    300     |   30     |         |         |

   63.25 |              |    400     |   40     |         |         |

   64    |     256      |            |          |         |         |

   70.71 |              |    500     |   50     |         |         |

   71    |              |            |          |     2   |         |

  100    |              |            |          |     1   |         |

  -------------------------------------------------------------------



_Image Angle._--The image angle represents what is called covering

power. It may be expressed in terms of the focal length, and

doubtless this is the best method, but it is not customary. It may

be expressed as an angle, the angle formed when a line is drawn from

each extremity of a line equal to the diameter of the circle

covered, and caused to meet at a point distant from the base line

equal to the focal length of the lens. The angle where the two lines

meet is the image angle. But generally the covering power is

expressed more roughly, as the ordinary size of the plate that

sufficiently good definition can be obtained on.



_Tele-Photographic Lenses._--If a negative (or dispersing or

concave) lens is introduced between the ordinary lens and the plate,

the equivalent focal length of the arrangement is greater than that

of the ordinary lens alone, but the length of camera necessary is

not proportionately great. It is possible therefore to obtain an

image of a size that would otherwise require a lens of long focal

length and a corresponding and perhaps impossible length of camera.

But this is not the only advantage, for if the ordinary lens and the

negative lens are separable to a variable extent, the amount of

magnification of the image, or increase in the equivalent focal

length of the optical system, is adjustable at will. For further

details concerning tele-photographic lenses and their use, reference

should be made to Mr. Dallmeyer's pamphlet on the subject.



There are two other subjects connected with the production of images

by photographic lenses that must be referred to, though neither of

them is of great importance if we exclude the use of hand cameras

(which are separately treated of) and bear in mind the ordinary

practice of to-day. These are depth of definition and the distortion

due to the use of single lenses.



_Depth of Definition._--It has already been shown that the action of

the lens is to bring to a point in the image all the light that

falls upon it from the corresponding point of the object. Now it is

clear from fig. 2 that, if different parts of the object are at

different distances from the lens, and this must be the case with

solid objects, these different parts cannot be in focus at the same

time. Still it is possible to get them so nearly in focus that the

result is serviceable, and the ordinary method of doing this is to

examine the image on the ground glass, and if the whole subject is

not sharp enough, to reduce the size of the aperture. Depth of

definition is increased by using a lens of shorter focal length or

by reducing the aperture. If a large aperture has to be used, the

focal length must be short if much depth of definition is wanted, or

conversely, if the focal length must be long the aperture must be

small. It follows that very rapid lenses that have a very long

focus are of no use, for in portraiture, for example, this

combination of properties would lead to the ear in the image being

fuzzy if the eye was sharp.



If a lens were perfect and had a flat field, the depth of definition

would depend only on the aperture and focal length. But if the lens

gives inferior definition towards the edges of the field, it is

quite obvious that there must be less depth of definition there, if

a minimum of defining power is accepted. The definition at its best

may be inferior to the minimum accepted and then obviously there is

no depth. Depth of definition therefore at the centre of the plate

depends entirely on the focal length and aperture, but away from the

centre it depends also on the quality of the lens, and is much

greater in a flat field anastigmat than in a lens of an older type.

But depth of definition is not a quality apart, it depends entirely

upon other factors, and it is better in examining a lens to

determine these factors separately rather than to lump them together

as depth.



_Distortion_ produced by single lenses is due to the fact that the

diaphragm is either in front of or behind them. If the diaphragm is

in front, the image is drawn towards the centre of the plate to an

extent that increases as the margin of the field is approached. A

line along one side of the plate has its ends drawn in to a greater

amount than its centre, because they are further from the middle of

the plate, and therefore it becomes curved like the side of a

barrel, and this effect is called barrel-shaped distortion. If the

diaphragm is behind the lens, the displacement is outwards, also

increasing towards the edges of the field, and a straight line at

the edge of the plate becomes curved so that it is convex towards

the centre of the plate. This is known as hour-glass distortion.

Both these effects are illustrated (and exaggerated for clearness'

sake) in fig. 6, the central square representing the true figure.

This "curvilinear distortion" is absent in all cases in the middle

of the plate and generally for a considerable area, and if single

lenses of only long focal length are used, say of a focal length

equal to at least one and a half times the length of the largest

side of the plate, it may be neglected. Wide-angle single lenses

should never be used except on a suitably small plate, so that the

above conditions hold. The nearer the diaphragm is to the lens the

less is the distortion, and some of the most modern single lenses

have the diaphragm so near that the photographer is even more safe

in the use of them.



[Illustration: MELTON MEADOWS. A. HORSLEY HINTON.]



_The Comparison and Use of Lenses._--The optician when he tests

lenses looks for each fault individually, but this the ordinary

photographer is hardly able to do, nor is it particularly desirable

for him, because if a lens is inferior it matters little to him why

it is so. On the other hand occasion may arise when he wants to

identify a fault, then the information already given will probably

be sufficient to enable him to do so, if to it is added that a small

pinhole with a flame behind it is a convenient point of light, and

that if the image of this luminous point is examined with a good

eyepiece, without the focussing screen, at various parts of the

field, the character of the defect may be discovered.



The main things that the photographer needs to look to in judging of

a lens or comparing it with another, are (1) that it works to focus,

(2) the quality of its defining power especially towards the edges

of the plate. There must also be taken into account the focal length

and aperture, and if both these are not the same in the lenses to be

compared they should be nearly the same, and the proportion that the

aperture bears to the focal length should be exactly the same. A

special diaphragm may have to be cut out of card for one of them.

The best test object that is always at hand is a newspaper pinned

flat against a flat wall. The camera must not be moved during the

work. Each lens is very carefully focussed and a negative made,

using the same aperture, time of development, and in all ways

similar treatment for both. If the focal lengths are different, the

images will be of correspondingly different sizes, and then the same

detail must be compared, not the definition at the same distance

from the centre.



All good lenses work to focus, but some of the cheaper ones do not.

To test this, any series of small objects arranged side by side, but

at distances varying by intervals of say two inches from the camera,

is photographed after carefully focussing on the middle one. If any

other than the middle one is the best defined, the lens is at fault.

But in this, as in all similar tests, it must be remembered that

ordinary dry plates are not quite flat, and the error of the plate

may make an appreciable difference.



The use of lenses comprises the whole art of working with the

camera, it is therefore not our province to say much about it. But

so far as lenses themselves are concerned it may be remarked that,

if a lens has a round field, it may be advantageous to tip up the

lens with regard to the plate when only a part of the plate is being

used, as for example sometimes in taking a landscape. But in using

the modern flat field lenses special care should be taken to keep

the lens and plate exactly true to each other, the plate exactly at

right angles to the lens axis. The image and plate must coincide or

definition will suffer. If the image is rounded and the plate flat,

then in any case the result is only a compromise, but to take full

advantage of the larger apertures when the field is flat, much more

care than has been usual must be devoted to this matter.



_Simple uncorrected lenses_ such as _spectacle lenses_ or

"_monocles_," suffer from the defects that have already been

described, and are valued on this account by some workers because

they give blurred or "soft" images. With a small enough diaphragm

they will give good definition, and generally it may be stated that

reducing the aperture lessens the effect of any fault that a lens

may possess. To get the best definition that a simple lens will

give, the plate must be brought nearer the lens after focussing by

about one-fiftieth of the focal length of the lens, so that it may

be brought from the best focus of visual light into the best focus

of the photographically active light. If the object photographed is

nearer to the lens than about one hundred times its focal length,

the amount of movement after focussing must be increased. If four

focal lengths distant, the correction is nearly one-thirtieth of the

focal length, at three focal lengths distant, nearly one-twentieth,

and at two focal lengths, about a thirteenth.



_Pinholes_ give an image that for all practical purposes may be said

to be equally blurred or "soft" over the whole plate. Much has been

written about pinholes and their use, but it is not definitely known

yet whether the exposure should be longer or shorter than the

exposure required when a lens is used, allowing, of course, for the

smallness of the aperture. The following short table and exposure

rules from the writer's "Science and Practice of Photography," will

probably prove useful:--



  +----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+

  | Pinholes--diameters        | 1/16 | 1/22 | 1/32 | 1/45 | 1/64 |

  +----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+

  | Distance from plate for    |      |      |      |      |      |

  |     sharpest image ...     |  64  |  32  |  16  |   8  |   4  |

  +----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+



All the above figures are in inches. Whatever pinhole and at

whatever distance, estimate the exposure for a lens at _f_/16,

_f_/22, _f_/32, _f_/45, or _f_/64, as the case may be, and multiply

it by the _square_ of the number of inches that the plate is distant

from the pinhole. But if the distance is as given above for any

hole, it is sufficient to expose for as many minutes as the plate is

inches distant from the hole, for a subject that would require one

second with an aperture of _f_/16.



                                        _Chapman Jones._









_Portraiture._





[Illustration]



The photographer who may be expert at landscape or architectural

work, will find himself at a loss when he essays portraiture. For

apart from the art of managing the sitter (a most important element

in producing a successful result), he will soon find that the kind

of plate that is suitable for outdoor work does not answer well for

portraits, unless the developer is greatly modified, for quite a

different kind of negative is required. As a general rule it is

advisable to use very rapid plates for portrait work; and in this

respect, at the present day we are much better supplied than even

five or six years ago, and with an extra-rapid plate it is possible

to secure a fully exposed negative in half a second, in weather and

under lighting that was quite impossible ten years ago. The best

expression and pose are generally secured when the sitter is unaware

of the actual moment of exposure; and for this purpose a silent

shutter working inside the camera is best. The sitter should never

be _asked_ to keep still unless, in groups, and when circumstances

necessitate a long exposure; and nowadays an exposure of five or six

seconds is a long one. Every effort should be made to put the sitter

quite at ease.



A head-rest should not be used unless absolutely necessary, and few

photographers are aware how easily it can be dispensed with, and

fail to realize how strong an objection nearly every sitter has to

it. It is far better to have an occasional plate spoilt by working

without the rest than to make every sitter uncomfortable by its use.

In fact some portrait negatives are actually improved by a slight

movement. In a special kind of lighting when the face is in _shadow_

relieved against a light background, a slight movement which

produces the effect of diffusion of focus greatly improves the

result.



Great care must be exercised in choosing the background even when it

is only plain or graduated, and it is well worth exposing three or

four plates on the same sitter, in the same position and lighting,

and with the same exposure, but with different backgrounds, and then

carefully comparing the resulting prints. Even if only one

background is at hand its depth can be varied by placing it nearer

or farther from the source of light. The background must also be

selected to suit the lighting of the sitter, as a background of

medium tint suitable for what is called "ordinary lighting" would be

quite unsuitable for "Rembrandt" effects, or where strong contrasts

of light and shade are used, when part of the face is in dark

shadow. For such effects a dark background is usually best, as it

gives luminosity to the shadow side of the face. But such dark

grounds are not suitable for "ordinary lighting" where the face

should be full of delicate half-tone, all of which would be killed

by the strength of the dark background.



For the Rembrandt effects a much longer exposure is necessary as

less light is reflected from the face on to the sensitive plate;

they will often need twice or three times as much as for ordinary

portraits.



When pictorial backgrounds or accessories are used it must be

remembered that the object of the photograph is to secure a portrait

of the _sitter_, not to show what a large stock of accessories the

photographer possesses. It is best to use as few accessories as

possible; I have heard a lady complain bitterly of a well-known

photographer, who having posed her in a very difficult position,

kept her waiting for five minutes while he arranged a screen, a

palm, a footstool, a tiger-skin, etc., so that she felt positively

ill before the exposure was made. The sitter should not be kept

waiting in the pose to be photographed any longer than is absolutely

necessary. If accessories must be used they should be simple and

suitable.



When portraits have to be taken in ordinary rooms it is advisable to

get a friend or assistant to experiment upon, if possible

beforehand. Even a few minutes spent in studying the possibilities

of light and arrangement of furniture will save a great deal of

worry when making the actual exposures, and nothing upsets nervous

sitters more than having all kinds of experiments and arrangements

made with them. But it is sometimes well worth wasting a few plates

on exposures which the photographer thinks will be useless, in order

to give the sitter time to get accustomed to the room; it must not

be done in a fussy, irritating way, but rather to show that it is

not such a very dreadful operation and really "doesn't hurt." This

plan often works well with nervous children, who soon become

accustomed to the room and the photographer. There is a great deal

to be said in favour of the maxim "leave your sitters alone." The

photographer must cultivate quick observation so that he sees at

once a good pose, and secures it; and here again quick plates are

essential, as many of the most charming poses are caught

unexpectedly. It has been well said that the best poses the

photographer secures are those he _observes_, not those he

_creates_. But a spontaneous pose may not be quite perfect and a

slight alteration may be easily made without disturbing the rest of

the figure. It will generally be found that a pose that takes a

great deal of arranging is not a success.



When taking portraits in an ordinary room it is usual to place the

sitter near the window, so that one side of the face is strongly

lighted and the other in deep shadow, and then use a white reflector

to light up the shadow side. It is often better, when the window is

a large one, to place the sitter farther back in the room almost

facing the window, and put the camera near the middle of the window

looking into the room; a softer lighting will then be secured. For

outdoor portraits a shady corner is best, and if possible, one where

the side light is much subdued on one side; a light head-shade may

be used with advantage. A large grey rug out of focus makes a good

background; a blanket is too light.



A portrait lens is best for the work; but if the photographer does

not possess one, he need not despair of producing good work. A rapid

rectilinear lens used at a large aperture will answer the purpose

well; it should always be used at full aperture, partly for the sake

of quickness in exposure, and partly to prevent accessories and

parts of the dress appearing too sharp and competing in importance

with the face. Subordination of parts is one of the essentials of a

picture; and if we examine a _good_ portrait we shall find that

probably no part of the photograph is quite sharp except the eyes

and face. Otherwise the less important details are apt to obtrude

themselves on our notice. A stop will generally be necessary,

however, with a portrait lens if a full or three-quarter length is

to be taken, and it will be found that heads only (as a rule) can be

taken at full aperture. Just as good work, however, can be done with

a rapid rectilinear as with a lens specially made for portraits,

except where rapid exposures are to be made; but it is necessary to

use one of fairly long focus. A rapid rectilinear lens used for

landscape work on a half plate would be much too short in focus for

giving good portraits on the same sized plate, for in order to get

the figure large enough it is necessary to place the camera so near

the sitter as to produce distortion. For portraits on a half plate a

lens of at least nine inches focus should be used and for a whole

plate not less than sixteen or eighteen inches, and longer if

possible.



The swing back of the camera will be found useful in portrait work

for getting parts of the figures into focus that are either too far

behind or too far in front of the plane of the face. For instance, a

full-length figure leaning back in a chair will have the feet out of

focus when the face is sharp if the back of the camera is vertical,

and this applies with even greater force to groups. A side swing too

is useful, but is not absolutely necessary. Even in bust portraits

the swing back is useful in getting the shoulders in focus when

using a large aperture, for although it is well not to have the

whole of the figure in _perfect_ focus all over, it is not advisable

to have the face sharp and the rest so out of focus as to be

blurred.



The development of a portrait plate should be different from that of

a landscape, because a different kind of negative is required. A

rapid plate developed so as to give a soft delicate image is best;

and a developer containing more alkali and less density giver is

good, and it may be considerably diluted with advantage. The image

should appear within ten seconds of pouring on the developer, and

the negative will generally be developed to sufficient density in

from two to three minutes. With a good average rapid plate the image

should show fairly well on the back of the plate, but this and the

time of development will vary so much with different developers, and

with the taste of each photographer that no hard and fast rule can

be laid down.



Developers that give a brown deposit, or that stain the film will

require shorter development than those of the newer developing

agents that give a cold black colour to the negative; another fact

to be borne in mind is that the image formed by these latter appears

to lose more density in fixing than when pyrogallic acid is used.



A perfect portrait negative should have no clear glass shadows, and

no part should be so dense as to give white in the finished print,

and some negatives which give the best results may have a decided

veiled appearance in the shadows.



The temperature of the developer is another important point; in very

cold weather the developer should be kept warm, or if in

concentrated solutions may be diluted with warm water. In cases of

known under-exposure the developer may be used quite hot with

advantage. A convincing experiment can be made by cutting an exposed

plate in two and developing one half with icy cold developer and the

other half with warm. The difference is really remarkable. If the

developer has been used hot enough to make the gelatine of the plate

feel "slimy" an alum bath is necessary, unless the fixing bath

contains chrome alum.



                         METOL.

                           1.

  Water                             100 parts or 10 ozs.

  Metol                               1 part or 50 grains

  Sodium sulphite                    10 parts or 1 oz.



                           2.

  Water                             100 parts or 10 ozs.

  Potassium carbonate                10 parts or 1 oz.



                           3.

  Potassium bromide                   1 part or 1 oz.

  Water                              10 parts or 10 ozs.



For normal exposures take 3 parts No. 1 and 1 part No. 2; to each

ounce of mixed developer add 40 minims of No. 3.



                     PYRO AND SODA.

                           1.

  Pyro                                1 oz.

  Water                              70 ozs.

  Nitric acid                        12 drops



                           2.

  Sodium sulphite                    10 ozs.

  Sodium carbonate (pure)             8 ozs.

  Water                              70 ozs.



Equal parts of each, for soft negatives dilute with water. To

restrain for over-exposure use potassium, not ammonium bromide.

Unless an acid fixing bath is used the negatives are rather green in

colour.



                RODINAL AND HYDROKINONE.



                           A.

  Sodium sulphite                    1 oz.

  Water                             20 ozs.

  Citric acid                        1 crystal

  Potassium bromide                  1 dram

  Hydrokinone                        2 drams



                           B.

  Potassium carbonate                2 ozs.

  Water                             20 ozs.

  Rodinal                            1 fluid oz.



Use 1 part A, 1 part B, and 1 part of water.



The question of retouching is a difficult one. There is no doubt

that a certain amount of it is necessary on nearly all portrait

negatives and even on those of children. But it is equally certain

that the great majority of portrait negatives are over-retouched, so

much so that their value both as portraits and pictures is nearly

destroyed. Yet a certain amount is necessary even for pictorial

effect, and perhaps still more when the question of likeness is

considered. For as a rule the untouched negative is no more a true

likeness than the over-retouched one. The truth lies somewhere

between the two. Even if isochromatic plates are used the little

differences of colour in the face, and the incipient wrinkles are

exaggerated in an unpleasant way. Under-exposed negatives will show

these defects in a very marked manner, full exposure will greatly

reduce them. Large heavy patches of shadow may be lightened by

coating the back of the negative with matt varnish, and when it is

quite hard "hatching" upon it with a soft lead. Harsh lights may be

reduced by scraping away the matt varnish with the point of a knife.

In some cases the matt varnish may be stained with a little aurine

or uranine. Exaggerated lines and small shadows must be worked upon

from the front and a retouching desk is necessary. The film of the

negative will not take the pencil without some preparation. The best

surface is obtained by spreading a little retouching medium with the

tip of the finger on the part to be touched. A thin film of soft

resin is left upon the plate which takes pencil marks readily. A

hard lead, No. 4 Faber or Hardtmuth, should be used. The loose leads

used in what are called the "ever-pointed holders" are most

convenient. The point must be very long and fine, like a large

darning needle, and is best made by rubbing the lead on a piece of

fine glass-paper. The pencil must be held very lightly and the lines

touched away with short _light_ strokes, a heavy stroke only rubs

the medium up.



The little shadow at the end of the mouth often has to be reduced,

often at the risk of spoiling the shape of the lips, but sitters

_will_ insist upon it being done, and say "You have made my mouth

much too large." Freckled faces are perhaps the most difficult to

retouch, as it is well nigh impossible to remove the black patches

caused by the freckles without at the same time destroying the

modelling of the face. Yet it must be done, for probably the most

severe stickler for truth would not insist on the black blotches

that freckles produce in a photograph.



A great deal can be done to improve a hard negative as soon as it

leaves the fixing bath, by applying a mixture of hypo solution and a

solution of ferricyanide (not ferro) of potash with a piece of cotton

wool to the dense parts. The proportions for this reducing bath are

as follows:--To each ounce of the ordinary hyposulphite of soda

fixing bath add a few drops of a 10% solution of ferricyanide of

potassium or red prussiate of potash, making the whole about the

colour of pale brandy. By adding more of the ferricyanide solution

the reducing action is quicker, but there is a greater liability to

stain the film. The work should be done over a sink with a tap of

running water at hand. The solution should be of a deep lemon colour

(it is almost impossible to give exact quantities), and after a short

application must be washed off under the tap, and the negative may

then be examined, and the reducer applied again and again till the

desired reduction is obtained. It is advisable to make a few trials

on spoilt plates. For if any really good work is to be done there

will be plenty of rejected negatives. Probably, of all the plates

exposed on portraits by first-rate professional photographers, not

more than one-fourth ever get as far as the printing-frame.



Moral: Do not be chary of exposing plates, they are cheap enough

now. Don't feel, "Oh! this will be good enough. I won't do another."

On the other hand don't expose carelessly and recklessly and say,

"It will all come right in developing." Good work is not done that

way. Use every opportunity of seeing good work. Study the work of

great portrait painters, but don't neglect the photographers. Go to

all the exhibitions of pictures and photographs within reach.



Don't be satisfied with what you have done, but make a resolve to do

something better next time. Remember, what is worth doing at all is

worth doing well.



                                        _Harold Baker._



[Illustration: Off Boulogne. By A. Horsley Hinton.]









_Pictorial Photography._





[Illustration]



Unlike the subjects of the other articles in this book, in pictorial

photography we are not brought to consider one of the many processes

which go to make up the photographic craft, but merely a special and

exceptional application of any and all means known to the

photographer.



The particular end to which this application is made will be

explained as far as the limits of space will permit, and some of the

methods of such application will be described. Beyond this I have no

intention of going. I do not present pictorial photography as a

branch of photography especially worthy of study--I am not concerned

in making converts. It is for the photographer who has already

formed a desire to give his attention to the pictorial side of

photography and who is seeking help, that this chapter is designed.



First let us come to a mutual understanding as to the term Pictorial

Photography. Picture-making by photography would perhaps be a

simpler phrase, but that to my mind the word "picture-making" is too

similar in idea to boot-making, lace-making, etc., all of which

imply a mechanical manufacturing, whereas a picture--a real

picture--like a musical composition, a poem or a beautiful thought,

grows or is evolved rather than made to order.



Art photography would be a better term, but that in photography the

word "art" has been so often coupled with things the very antithesis

of artistic and might hence be misleading, moreover the photographer

will show discretion rather than weakness if he be not too hasty to

claim for photography a position among the arts, and whilst its

claims to that dignity remain as yet in dispute, we may be content

with "Pictorial Photography" as a less assuming title, yet one which

will sufficiently differentiate between what we may call the

ordinary photographic production and---- Well, what?



That is the first thing I have to try and explain.



Look at the illustrations in this book on pages 72, 136, and 120,

and, making due allowance for some loss of quality due to

reproduction by a "half-tone" block, try to imagine what the

originals were like. Then say if they please you. If you say no, you

do not care for them, they do not appeal to you, you do not mind if

you never saw anything of the kind again from this day henceforth;

very well, doubtless there are other things in the world in which

you can find pleasure, but so far as my present subject is

concerned, here you and I part company. These illustrations are more

or less successful reproductions of pictorial work, and if you do

not like them, making as I have said due allowance for their being

reproduced and reduced, then it is certain you do not want to hear

anything about them, and it is not my intention to persuade you, so

please pass on and make room for those who do care for these things

and wish to learn all they can concerning them, or at most stand

aside and peradventure some stray word dropped unintentionally may

quicken your interest and discover in you a sympathy of which you

were previously unconscious.



[Illustration: MISS LILY HANBURY--A PORTRAIT. HAROLD BAKER.]



Referring now again to the illustrations which in the absence of

anything else we take as fairly typical of pictorial photographs and

assuming that one or the other, if not all, do please some of my

readers, I will ask them to endeavour to analyse their feelings when

confronting such productions.



Take now an ordinary commercial photographic view such as one may

purchase from any sea-side stationer, and compare the sensations

awakened by each. In the case of the topographical view we feel some

satisfaction at being able to recognise a familiar spot, or the view

reminds us of some other place, or it may be quaint buildings, or

rugged mountains, or miles of foliage, or what not inspire curiosity

or interest because we know the photograph to be a true record of

facts, that is to say we accept the photograph in lieu of the actual

presence of the objects represented, and experience nearly the same

feelings as we should were we to visit the spot represented. We know

that the wonderful, curious, or unusual things portrayed have an

existence, otherwise we could not have a photograph of them.



In all such cases our interest and value of the photograph would

vastly diminish, were it possible for a photograph of this kind to

be made simply by the photographer's hand and imagination without

any original at all.



You look at a photograph of this or that sea-side place and remark,

"Ah, yes, that's dear old Yarmouth, many a time, etc., etc.," or

else, "Dear me, I wonder what place that is, it's so like----" such

and such a town, or it may be you enquire "Where's that?" and you

express or think to yourself you would like to go and visit the

spot. These and kindred sensations are those kindled by the average

photograph, but there is yet another, for you may be impelled to

exclaim, "How wonderfully clear and bright that photograph is,"

"What a good photograph." In this case you are interested purely in

the execution as an example of clever manipulation and skilful

craftsmanship.



Now, compare such feelings as these with those stirred by an example

of good pictorial work. In the first place your esteem for it, if

you value it at all, is quite as great whether you know the place

where it was made or not. If it pleases you, that pleasure is not

dependent upon the fact that it does represent some place. In the

case of paintings and drawings as often as not they do not pretend

to represent any place at all, but are pure fiction, yet we do not

value them the less. To what then is the pleasure we feel when

looking at a good picture due? Is it not that a picture stirs up,

that is, _creates_ pleasant or beautiful thoughts and ideas--by

pleasant I do not mean necessarily merry or joyous ones, for some

hearts feel profounder pleasure in the grandeur of storm or the

majesty of the mountain than in the sweet wilderness of flowery

wastes, but notice that such beautiful ideas are _created_ by the

picture. You were thinking of something totally different before you

came upon the landscape picture which instantly made you feel the

glowing light, the stirring breeze, and hear the rustling corn and

noisy brook, and yet it cannot be said it is because we _recognise_

these things in the picture that we receive these impressions, at

least it is not the kind of recognition which takes place when we

see a photograph of Brighton Pier or Haddon Hall.



Notice, it is not the exact and faithful portrayal of objects that

creates the emotions instanced, for if you closely observe the

manner in which a good painting is done you will find that rude

splashes of paint, broad brush strokes, and the like stand for

foliage or water, or corn stalks as the case may be, when we know

that had the painter desired he _could_ have produced his likeness

of nature with a good deal more of the precise detail and fidelity

to outlines which photography excels in, _had he wished_. But if the

painter or other pictorial artist needs not to trouble about

accuracy to details to secure the effect aimed at he must be

faithful to general facts. There is a great difference between not

recognising things or having no particular wish to do so, and

feeling conscious that a portrayal is so utterly unlike anything in

our past experience of nature that we should not recognise the

objects even if we _were_ acquainted with them. To take an extreme

case--our enjoyment of the effect and sentiment of a beautiful

landscape picture is not enhanced by our being able to recognise

whether the trees are oaks or elms, but it would be distinctly

disturbed if the palm trees were represented as growing on the

slopes of a Welsh mountain. Innumerable examples and instances might

be given to show that the artist, whatsoever his medium, be it

colour or monochrome, may depart from truth, or may be indifferent

to precise details, _only so far as he avoids palpable untruth_.



Why is this?



When we look at a powerful and impressive picture we feel at once

the sentiment, our emotions are at once stirred, subsequently we

recognise objects and facts portrayed, but only when we begin to

look for them or think about them; but a gross exaggeration or a

very obvious error strikes us at once before we begin to receive

sentiments and ideas, and that error or exaggeration once seen is

never lost sight of, and whole enjoyment of the picture is

hopelessly marred.



Now, from the foregoing (for want of space I am aware that the

argument is incomplete, and must therefore ask the student to think

the matter out and grasp the side issues by reading between the

lines) we may formulate the broad definition that a picture does not

depend for its excellence on the faithful representation of objects,

and is not chiefly valuable on account of our immediate recognition

of things portrayed, yet on the other hand it must not let us feel

that there is obvious inaccuracy.



Here then we have two opposite positions in both of which the mere

objects employed to build up the picture are subordinated to the

effect or impression of the picture. In one case the spectator must

not be allowed to feel that the representation is _wrong_, in the

other success will not directly depend on the representation being

very _right_, neither startling rightness or truth nor the obvious

wrongness or untruth should thrust the objects composing the picture

upon the beholder's attention, he should be left free to receive the

expression or sentiment of it.



I hope the reader is following me in this line of thought closely. I

am aware that it may seem dry and uninteresting, but I see no other

way of placing the student in a proper position at the outset than

by explaining the essential elements of pictorial work, and I will

make this introductory part as brief as possible.



Reverting now to our argument, I have in other words suggested that

obvious violation of truth will prevent the sentiment or effect of

the picture from being paramount, and now I will submit that an

excess of accuracy to detail is equally detrimental to the success

of a picture as a picture.



If by now the reader is prepared to admit that the chief purpose of

a picture is the feelings, emotions, ideas which it suggests or

creates, and not the facts it portrays, he will be able to go

further and perceive that in a landscape, for instance, cottages,

trees, or what not are introduced, not for their own intrinsic

interest but as vehicles of light and shade, which go to express the

picture's sentiments.



If we stand before a good picture with closed eyes and suddenly open

them, our first impression (precluding any question of colour) is

that of masses of light and shade pleasingly and harmoniously

arranged; if we retreat to such a distance that the objects

constituting those lights and shades are unrecognisable the balance

and pleasing arrangement should still be felt, and our aesthetic

sense is satisfied, although we do not see fully of what the picture

is composed. This is the quality which is termed breadth and which

is admittedly of very great value.



If on the other hand the shadow masses are filled with innumerable

details, and are thus broken up into tiny lights and shadows they no

longer exist as broad masses of dark, but if before retreating as

proposed from the picture, the lights or shadows appear so blank as

to prompt particular investigation, and upon examination we find

detail absent which we know must have been present, then we

encounter an instance of untruth and exaggeration which is obvious

and which disturbs our appreciation of other fine qualities. Thus we

require _sufficient detail to avoid giving the idea that detail is

left out_.



The delineation of sharp outlines and redundance of detail is not

wrong in itself, but it is usually inexpedient when considered with

respect to the effect to be produced, similarly the suppression of

sharp focus both as regards outlines and details has no artistic

merit of itself except as it assists the picture to impress the

beholder first with the general effect.



The painter and photographer start from two opposite standpoints.

The painter, or draughtsman, starts with nothing but blank paper,

and having built up his picture and produced his desired effect he

elaborates no further; the photographer with his more or less

mechanically produced _facsimile_ starts from the opposite extreme

with a transcendentally elaborate image, from which he will require

to eliminate all such excess of truth as is likely to force the mere

facts of the view upon the beholder's attention.



Photography, so faultlessly complete in its delineation, gives us

_more than the pictorial worker needs for the expression of an

idea_, and this is why I would remind the student that pictorial

photography is not photography in the full sense of the word, but

the application of some of its powers, just as much as we need and

no more, to a definite end.



As just hinted the purpose of a picture is to express ideas, hence I

will fall back on a kind of definition which I have used on a

previous occasion that a picture is the portrayal of visible

concrete things for the expression of abstract ideas.



To give an example by way of exposition we may look upon a picture

and be made to feel by it the calm and luminous atmosphere of

evening; we feel at once the restfulness, and almost feel the warmth

of the humid air, giving place to the chill gathering mists of

night; but the same objects, the same tangible materials, paper,

pigment, metallic salts, etc., in another picture give us the sense

of angry turbulent storm or perhaps bright joyous sunshine

frolicking with the fresh breezes on the hill-tops. These are

abstract ideas expressed or created by the manner in which concrete

things, commonplace facts, are portrayed and rendered.



Finally, let me enunciate that a very excellent photograph may not

necessarily be a good picture, because it may contain more than is

required for the expression of its idea, and the surplus will

overwhelm it; again, a good pictorial photograph may be but a poor

photograph, because if we claim the right to apply photographic

means to pictorial ends, we may find it convenient to leave out the

very qualities which the scientific or technical expert considers

most precious.



And now I think we may proceed to more practical matters.





COMPOSITION AND SELECTION.



In all matters from which the eye expects to derive pleasure,

symmetry of design seems essential. In the formation of the letters

that we write, in personal attire, in the decoration of our homes,

in buildings, and practically in everything which is not of a purely

utilitarian character, a sense of proportion and a symmetrical

disposition of parts is observed. Hence it is no source of surprise

that in a picture which as much as anything should aim at pleasing

the eye, design, otherwise Composition, is with Expression a

co-essential.



In a purely decorative production this natural desire of design is

the only thing to be observed, but in a picture which _may_ be

decorative, but _must_ be something more, we have expression as well

to consider. If decoration alone were to be regarded, something like

fixed rules might perhaps be tyrannically laid down, but in a

picture the implicit observance of rules of composition would be

certain to make itself seen in the result, and the undue

obtrusiveness of a code of rules would be as inimical to the

supremacy of ideas and feelings, as the excessive prominence of fact

would be, which has already been described.



Hence the difficulty in prescribing any definite course for the

beginner, because whilst to most instinctive artistic temperaments a

certain knowledge of or feeling for composition is natural, so soon

as this is reduced to definite rule and given to another, the, as it

were, secondhand use, is nearly certain to betray itself by its

misapplication. I would ask therefore that any suggestions given

here on the subject of composition should be taken as one takes

lessons in the rudiments of a language, which rudiments we violate

and forget so soon as we have become proficient enough to speak it.

_Such rules in composition should be observed only so far as to

avoid the appearance of having infringed or ignored them._



The rules of composition which may be found to apply in one of the

pictorial arts must necessarily apply equally in the others, and so

therefore to pictorial photography which at least aspires to be

considered an art. If on a sheet of paper a rectangular space is

given us wherein to draw the likeness of anything, the most natural

course to pursue would be to draw that figure in the centre or

thereabouts, and if then we are asked to add the likeness of two or

three more objects we should naturally place these near the first

object. Thus should we compose a group of objects which draw the

attention to the middle of the picture or space.



Suppose we are asked to draw the picture of a church tower we should

probably comply with the request somewhat as shown in fig. 1. Next

we will suppose we are asked to add a cottage, some trees, and a

path to the church, we should, if possessed of some sense of

symmetry and order, coupled with average intelligence, make the

additions somewhat as in fig. 2. It would surely be an unusual thing

to follow instead the course suggested by figs. 3 and 4.



In figs. 1 and 2 we have instinctively placed the primary object in

or near the centre, and the others near and around it, and the

result strikes one at once as being better composed, that is, more

symmetrical, than in fig. 4, in which amongst other things one is

not sure which object to regard as the principal one, and one also

feels that but for the boundaries of the picture left and right we

might have seen a good deal more beyond, which would have added to

the interest of the picture.



[Illustration: Fig. 1.]



[Illustration: Fig. 2.]



[Illustration: Fig. 3.]



[Illustration: Fig. 4.]



In this we have one of the first rules in composition, namely, that

the principal object should be near the centre, and the next

important near to, and as it were supporting it, and no object

likely to attract the eye should be so near the edge of the picture

as to make us instantly conscious of the boundaries and wish to see

more beyond.



But now if in compliance with the supposed request we had made our

drawing as in fig. 5, might it not at once be felt by the observer

that we had put the objects in a central position _intentionally_,

which is equivalent to saying that we had allowed our endeavour to

observe the rule just laid down to betray itself. Fig. 2 is

preferable as being only just sufficiently symmetrical to avoid

being unsymmetrical, which is an example of what has already been

said about the necessity of observing rules of composition just so

far as to escape the appearance of having broken them.



[Illustration: Fig. 5.]



[Illustration: Fig. 6.]



If this rule is right as regards voluntarily drawing a picture, it

is equally so in the case of a photograph, but instead of

deliberately placing things in such and such positions, we attain

the same end by moving the camera and selecting our point of view so

that the objects come into the positions desired.



Now suppose then, we have done this, but in doing it we are quite

unable to prevent other objects coming into the field of view and

occupying undesirable places near the margins of the picture, as for

instance in fig. 6. Here we are brought to consider another rule or

principle in composition, namely, that there must be one and only

one chief object in the picture, whereas in fig. 6, apart from the

gate and tree on the one side and the windmill on the other

attracting attention to the margins of the picture, these same

objects arrest the attention quite as much as the church, and we

feel the eye wandering about from one to the other and missing the

sensation of centralization and rest which fig. 2 gives.



If we were drawing or painting we should put in what we want and

then stop, we should omit or ignore what we did not require, but in

photography our powers in this direction are limited, and hence we

must as far as possible select those views, and only accept such, as

comply with what we feel to be right.



The angle of view included by different lenses is an auxiliary not

to be neglected, for by substituting a narrower angle lens, that is,

one of longer focus, we may cut off or leave out undesirable objects

which the shorter focus lens might include. Then again, when the

print is finished we can after careful consideration cut off what

would have been better left out, for it will be better to have a

picture half the size well composed, than double the number of

inches with a distracting and unsatisfactory arrangement of objects,

hence with many most successful workers it is no uncommon thing to

take quite a small portion of a negative, and either print it as it

is or else enlarge it up to the desired size, but mere size will

reckon as nothing as compared with pleasing composition.



If it is inexpedient to let the principal object or group of objects

occupy the exact centre of the picture, measured from left to right,

it is equally so if the centre be measured from top to bottom, and

hence we may formulate the rule (to be broken perhaps later when we

are strong enough to be independent of guiding) that the horizon

should not be allowed to come midway between the top and the base of

the picture.



[Illustration: Fig. 7.]



[Illustration: Fig. 8.]



Remembering now that, as set forth in the earlier part of this

article, a picture should appeal to our feelings and stir our

emotions, it may be pointed out that in most ordinary things, and

certainly in the arts, the most powerful things are those which

possess _one_ dominant idea or feature, as in a piece of music the

refrain keeps recurring, a preacher takes a text, in a story there

is _one_ hero, and so forth, and in point of composition fig. 7 is

better than fig. 8, although the view is less comprehensive.



[Illustration: Fig. 9.]



It may not, however, always be easy for the beginner to determine

what is the chief object which should occupy the central position,

or which object or group to choose in a landscape.



[Illustration: Fig. 10.]



This brings us to speak of another important matter, and that is the

right disposition of lines which form the view or the selection of

view so that the lines formed by the component parts shall fall in a

desirable manner. The various objects in any view tend to form or

suggest lines, thus in fig. 9 the outline of the trees, the bank

along the shore, the clouds, and the boats suggest the lines shown

in the diagram, fig. 10, which lines all run the same way, but in

fig. 11 we have a similar view in which the lines suggested

counterbalance each other, and not only so, but by their convergence

they carry the eye to a spot near the centre, and so make the boat,

although not very large nor conspicuous, the one and principal

object (see diagram fig. 12).



[Illustration: Fig. 11.]



[Illustration: Fig. 12.]



For the sake of training one's perceptions look at any good

pictures, and in your mind resolve them into line diagrams and see

how these lines fall, and in considering any landscape or other

subject to be photographed make up your mind as to what lines are

suggested, and then select your point of view so that these lines

balance or are symmetrical in arrangement, and also that they

converge towards some point well within the picture, and near the

centre of it.



[Illustration: Fig. 13.]



But in fig. 13 we have a subject in part well composed, but the

composition is spoilt because of the line formed by the road and

fence, which seem to cut the picture in two, whereas could we have

chosen the same subject from a point of view giving such an

arrangement as fig. 14, a difference is at once felt and a more

pleasing effect gained.



[Illustration: Fig. 14.]



[Illustration: Fig. 15.]



[Illustration: Fig. 16.]



Lines which seem to separate us from the picture and cut off one

part from another must be carefully avoided, and an endeavour to

find something which will, as it were, lead the eye into the

picture, should be diligently sought for, and indeed a subject,

however it may interest us, must often be abandoned if it lacks

those things which go to make pleasing composition, remembering as

we should always do that in pictorial work the fact that objects are

curious, or interesting, or pretty, has nothing to do with the case,

but that they are only to be valued according as they act as media

for expressing pleasing ideas, beautiful thoughts and sentiments,

which they will not do if some part creates a feeling of unpleasing

arrangement or design. If a scene does not compose well, we should

as pictorial workers feel no desire to reproduce it. But you may say

"Cannot we often by changing our point of view get an otherwise

ill-composed subject to compose well?" Most decidedly, that is

precisely what we should do, but it is no longer the same subject or

view.



And now let me say that it is often surprising how much alteration

may be made by changing our position. Figs. 15 and 16 are together

an instance of this, the outline here given being made from a pencil

sketch made on the spot, whilst figs. 17 and 18 are examples of the

desirable change brought about by watching and waiting for a change

in the position of light and the condition of the river's tide.



[Illustration: Fig. 17.]



[Illustration: Fig. 18.]



Where the beginner most often fails is in taking things as they are

without pausing to consider whether they might not be improved, and

if so in what way, and then patiently searching to see if such

better way can be found.



Pictorial success will as often as not depend on the exercise of

fastidious taste, which is satisfied with nothing but the very best,

and not quite content even then.



A great deal more might usefully be said with reference to the

composition of lines if space would permit, but this general

reference may be given as a sort of summing up.



If the disposition of the lines constitutes such a perfectly

symmetrical design that it is at once recognised as symmetrical,

then it is wrong, because the artifice by which pleasing composition

is attained is betrayed, and we feel the thing to be artificial. If,

on the other hand, the lines fall so as to make the beholder

conscious of their presence, as, for instance, cutting off a portion

of the subject or presenting a one-sided appearance, again it is

wrong. _In neither case should the lines or the objects suggesting

them be felt at all until sought for, neither as being very right or

very wrong._



In art it is a maxim that the means by which the thing is done

should not proclaim itself, and hence it must apply to pictorial

photography, which is an effort after the artistic. A composition

should please without our quite knowing why, and without our being

able to see the machinery, as it were, by which our pleasurable

sensations are set in motion.



But whilst it is convenient to speak of _lines_ in the landscape, it

is only a manner of speaking, for, as we know very well,

photography, unlike pen drawing, has to do with "tones," that is,

_masses_ of light and shade. Now the general rules suggested as

regards the arrangement of lines, apply in much the same way if we

regard a picture (as we should do) as consisting of masses of light

and shade.



If when standing before a picture we close the eyes and then

suddenly open them, our attention is certain to be drawn to the

highest light or the deepest shadow, and hence, as a general rule,

whichever of these is the strongest to attract attention, that

should be in or near the principal object (indeed it will make of

itself the principal object), and should therefore be well removed

from the margins of the picture.



Refer back to fig. 8, in which the light patch of sky, the light in

the water and the two clusters of light rushes, all form competing

points of attraction, and if these are too near the margins, they

remind us of those margins, hence the improvement in effect when

these are cut away or left out.



But disposing of the highest light and deepest dark does not finish

the matter. There is a certain relative degree of lightness and

darkness between everything in nature. Moreover, colours have to be

interpreted by certain degrees of light and shade according to the

distance objects are away from us, and according to the amount of

light falling on them.



Such relative lightness and darkness is called "_tone_." The word

used in this sense has nothing to do with "tone" as applied to the

colour of a print, which colour we change by a process we call

"toning," and upon the correct rendering of relative tones so much

of the effect of a picture depends, and so much of its emotional

qualities.



Generally speaking, although there are often exceptions, the further

an object is from us the grayer it seems. White becomes less white,

and dark objects grow less dark, until in the distance both, under

ordinary circumstances, come almost to the same "tone," and we see

the distance only as a gray hazy mass.



If for a subject we have a figure of a woman by a stream of water

and we make an under-exposed negative of it, or develop the negative

to too great a density, we shall very likely have a print in which

the water and the woman's apron and cap come very much whiter with

regard to the rest of the subject than ever they appear in nature,

whilst the distance will very likely come too dark. Here we show a

disregard for the correct rendering of relative tones and the effect

is hard and harsh, unlike nature. We must therefore endeavour, both

in exposure and development and printing, to preserve relative tones

exactly as they are in nature, and constant study and observation of

nature should be carried on in order that the eye may be trained to

know how things come relatively in nature, and so be able to decide

at a glance if the photograph is good.



Ultimate success, by the way, often depends less on knowing what to

take and how to take it than on a well-trained judgment which knows

what is good or bad when we have taken it.



Whilst the mere lines or forms of objects may impart some amount of

feeling and sentiment to a scene, inasmuch as there is restfulness

and repose in the long horizontal lines of the river-side pastures,

something rhythmical in the sinuous curves of the winding stream, or

vigour and variety in the irregular forms of the rugged cliffs and

so on, yet the ideas and feelings which the picture will promote

depend more on the lights and shades, and the masses contrasting or

merging each with each.



But Nature does not always present herself in pleasingly arranged

masses, and is consequently at such times commonplace and

unpicturesque in the literal sense of the word. At such times she

will not attract the pictorial worker any more than she will when

perchance the lines and groupings are unsuitable.



The landscape which basks under the full blaze of sun, glittering

throughout every inch with a myriad twinkling lights and sharp

details, awakens no feeling akin to those which probably everyone

feels when in the twilight of evening plane after plane recedes as

one broad flat tint behind the other. Under the bright light of day

we may wonder at the richness and plenty upon the earth, we may

rejoice in that there are so many curious and pretty things to look

at, but these are like the feelings inspired by reading a book on

natural history, rather than the emotions created by the perusal of

a poem, or listening to sweet music.



[Illustration: Fig. 19.]



Compare for a moment the two photographs, fig. 19 and fig. 20.



The first is by no means an extreme case of the ordinary photograph,

and notice that although the composition is fairly good as far as

grouping goes, there is an absence of any quality which might make

one feel anything outside the bare recognition of the facts

depicted, but the second, if it be good at all, must depend for

admiration on a certain amount of sentiment which it suggests or

creates. You will notice that in the first there is no sense of

distance, and although a church tower, behind the masts of the

boats, is half a mile or so away it does not possess the "tone" and

veiling of atmosphere which would make it appear distant. Every part

of the view seems equally near, or nearly so; the eye wanders over

the whole, alighting on details here and there which interest and

amuse, yet there is an absence of just that breadth which is

noticeably present in the second example.



[Illustration: Fig. 20.]



Now let it be distinctly understood that detail, its omission or

suppression, and its introduction or sharp delineation, is not a

question of lens focus only, or even chiefly, but it is largely a

question of light. Imagine the photograph, fig. 19, with the greater

part of the detail taken out so that the quay, the houses, the

shore, etc. were just broad masses of lighter or darker tone, should

we not then get a composition which would be less disturbing, more

compact, more concentrated in interest? Is not this the case in fig.

20, in which detail is almost entirely absent? And yet detail could

not have been truthfully introduced in this photograph, because with

the light in the position it is, and in the misty evening air, _no

detail was there to reproduce_; it was the fact that objects ranged

themselves in masses one against the other, leaving room for

imagination and creating ideas that determined its selection and its

consequent portrayal.



In many cases a clear and sharp delineation of details will perhaps

be desirable, not, however, for the sake of showing detail, but just

so far as the production of the effect may require; on the other

hand, just the full amount of detail that a lens will give is by no

means always wanted.



_Lenses were not invented for pictorial purposes_, and therefore

there is no reason for concluding that what the lens gives is

necessarily right, for remember that we started with the distinct

understanding that we were merely _applying_ to a certain purpose

just so much of the photographic process as we considered we needed;

because I have the means of travelling at sixty miles an hour there

is no reason why I should not apply the same means of locomotion to

coaching a pedestrian at a tenth of that speed if I choose. It may

be said that in the two photographs referred to the comparison is

not a fair one, because so much depends on the sky. Granted that

much in the second example does depend on the sky, which is an

essential part of the picture, and indeed one cause of its very

existence, but in the other (fig. 19) the presence of clouds would

not improve the pictorial faults to which reference has been made.

As a mere record or portrayal of Old Woodbridge Quay, the absence

of clouds is as much a characteristic of its particular species, as

the clouds in the second one are inseparable from its existence.



So, but little more than half hinting at the principles involved in

the due suppression of unnecessary details, and the elimination of

undesirable objects in order to obtain breadth, and having said but

little as to the preservation of correct relative values or tones, I

must pass on.



Every corner of nature's broad expanse is, as it were, enveloped in

atmosphere, and invisible as we are commonly in the habit of

considering it to be, it affects to a greater or less degree

everything we see, and the visible atmosphere is often responsible

for some of nature's most beautiful and most appealing aspects.

Obviously then we cannot afford to leave out so important a

contributory to picturesque effect, and it is on this account rather

than on account of sharp or un-sharp detail that the question of

stops and lens apertures comes in.



Look at the image of a landscape on a moderately hazy day, as it

appears on the ground-glass focussing screen of your camera, using

the lens at full aperture--then quickly insert _f_/32, and notice

the difference. Not alone have objects near at hand and more remote

become more sharply or more equally defined, but you may also notice

that objects are _more brilliant_, and that a sense of atmosphere

has been cut out.



Compare if you will two photographs, the one made respectively with

full aperture of _f_/6 or _f_/8 and the other made with _f_/32 or

_f_/45, and provided that in the first case we have not actual

blurring to the extent of destroying form and structure, does not

the first remind you more of nature? I do not say it is so

instructive, so surprising, so dainty, or of such exquisite finish,

but is it not more reminiscent of the _effects_ we remember to have

seen and _felt_ in nature. It is not the function of this article to

say to what optical laws this difference is due, and yet the student

may expect to receive something by way of practical working

instructions.



My recommendation is then to use a single landscape lens or the

single combination of a doublet, and in starting to use the full

aperture.



With this it may be that when the foreground is moderately sharp,

trees more remote are so ill defined as to appear as a collection of

little blots and irregular patches. Whilst sharp detail in all

places may not be productive of pictorial effect, yet the extreme

opposite will be displeasing in another way, and it will be best to

secure just _so much definition and no more_ as shall save the

representation from appearing to have been wilfully put out of

focus--once let the destruction of detail be obvious and we betray

the artifice by which we are working, which is just what we should

avoid.



In the case just supposed then, we may now introduce the first stop,

simultaneously racking the lens in a little until we get middle

distance without unpleasantly obvious blurring. The foreground may

be a little out of focus, and in practice I find it is rather

helpful to general effect if detail is sacrificed more in the

foreground than in the middle distance.



This I believe is contrary to the teaching of many, but my feeling

is that with a sharply defined foreground the eye is attracted and

the interest so far arrested, that it is difficult to travel further

and enter into the poetry and sentiment of the scene beyond.



Wide-angle lenses have a double disadvantage, shared in part by

so-called rapid rectilinear doublet lenses. In the first place they

flatten the view, bringing distant planes to appear as near as the

nearer ones, and by including a comparatively wide angle they bring

into the plane of the foreground, objects so near that they appear

out of proportion, and hence proportions are false when judged as

the observer must judge by the standard of visual perspective.



A long-focus, narrow-angle lens necessitates a camera which racks

out to a considerable length, and probably a greater extension than

any camera in the ordinary way can give, would be an advantage on

some occasions.



Passing reference has been made to the interpretation of colours in

nature in their true relative value of black and white.



If we have a subject in which brilliant orange-coloured rushes in

autumn are seen as glowing bright against a background of dark blue

water, and the rushes made still more golden of hue by the ruddy

rays of a sinking sun, a difficult case is before us.



Such a case I remember very well in the south of Devonshire, close

to what is known as Slapton Ley. It was late afternoon in November,

and from over the rounded hills behind me to the westward, the

declining sun sent warm red rays on to the belt of faded reeds which

stretched out into the expanse of the still land-locked water of the

Ley--a great sheet of fresh water which placidly lay under the

shelter of the bank of shingle which alone separated it from the

ever-restless sea--placidly listening to the ceaseless voices of sea

music, and at this particular hour reflecting the sky deep blue and

of almost leaden hue--just above the bank rose the full moon, orange

in tint, on a background of blue-green sky--the yellow reeds,

kindled into glowing amber tints by the sun's rays, flamed out from

the deep blue water--yellow the shingle bank against the blue water

and green-blue sky, deeper yellow the moon as it rose from out the

sea. So grand a scheme of colour that by its side the essays of the

most daring painter might well seem feeble, so exquisite a poem that

the intrusion of the photographer, analysing the values and tones

and calculating his powers of reproduction seemed like sacrilege. In

the main it was yellow, orange-yellow, and red standing out as

luminous against the deep blue of water and only a little less blue

sky. It was gorgeous non-actinic colour appearing as _light_ against

a highly actinic but _darker_ colour. The consequence of an

indiscreet exposure with an ordinary plate might be anticipated to

produce _dark_ rushes against a _pale grey_ background of water, and

so probably the very effect we were minded to secure, reversed and

dissipated.



This is an extreme case, perhaps, but throughout the whole range of

nature the contrasting and blending of adjacent colours is so subtle

a thing that I should feel one were throwing away at least a

possible advantage by not using colour-corrected or isochromatic

plates on nearly every occasion, and in order to get the full

advantage of isochromatic plates, I should consider the addition of

a yellow screen an essential.



The rapidity of one's plates, isochromatic or otherwise, must be

governed entirely by the nature of the subject, as also to some

degree must be development and subsequent printing.



In every case I would endeavour to get a comparatively thin

negative, with even the portions representing deepest shadows

slightly veiled. "Clear glass shadows" is an enormity and an outrage

both of science and art; equally are solid high-lights to be

shunned. With modern printing methods it needs much less than actual

opacity in the negative to produce white paper, and if the picture

requires any part of it at all to appear as quite white, no subject

will need more than the very smallest region to be so. A general

softness and very subtle gradation, with a total absence of

"sparkle" and brilliancy in the negative, will yield by at least

most processes the most suggestive print, bearing in mind that

delicate gradations suggest atmosphere, and atmosphere is one of

nature's most precious qualities.



Whilst plain salted papers sensitized with silver present

possibilities not yet sufficiently exploited, yet until such time

that something more entirely satisfactory in all respects is given

us in silver papers, platinotype and carbon, and perhaps also gum

bichromate will be the processes most suitable for our purpose.

Personally, platinotype has been the favoured medium, being, as I

believe, more ductile and more amenable to various methods of

control than is generally recognised.



And leaving much more of importance unsaid than space limits admit

of my saying, I must leave it.



                                        _A. Horsley Hinton._









_Architectural Photography._





[Illustration]



To the majority amateurs, the photographing of architectural

subjects presents considerable, and in many cases apparently

insurmountable difficulties. Undoubtedly there are difficulties to

be grappled with, but they are neither so formidable nor so

numerous, but that any ordinary photographer with the average amount

of common sense can master them be he so minded.



Unfortunately there are a great many who take up photography as an

amusement to whom the slightest departure from the ordinary routine

presents a difficulty. It is however to the amateur photographer who

desires to be able to portray architecture, be it either of our

cathedrals, churches, historic mansions, or places of personal

interest, and at the same time wishes to be able to do the subjects

fair justice, that it is hoped the following particulars may be of

some service.



To the beginner taking up this or indeed any branch of photography,

size is of course a great consideration either from the weight

carrying or pecuniary point of view. Another reason is the fact that

young photographic workers have an idea that the smaller the plate,

the easier the working. Sound though this reasoning may appear,

nevertheless it is not entirely correct.



As a matter of fact all things being taken into consideration the

larger the plate up to 12 x 10 or 15 x 12 employed the more rapidly

will the worker progress.



Large plates, especially in architectural work, tend to make the

operator more careful and conscientious when out with the camera;

and even more so when in the developing room. So much more can be

done with a large plate than with a small one; the use of a large

plate moreover checks the common failing so prevalent among amateurs

of rushing work and recklessly using plates.



Taking all things into consideration, I would strongly recommend the

whole plate or 10 x 8 camera to the student taking up this branch of

our art.



In selecting a camera purchase a front extending one with bellows

only slightly tapering. See that it has both rising and cross

movement to the front, and also that the amount of movement in each

case is a not too restricted one. Makers, unfortunately, do not give

sufficient attention to this matter, the usual rise allowed being

very slight whereas it should be at least equal to one-third of the

longest way of the plate; even more than this is advantageous if it

can be obtained. By the rise I mean the amount of upward movement

that can be obtained, the lens being in the centre before starting.



The cross-front should have a movement of about one-quarter of the

length of the plate each way.



It may be useful to know that a little more rise can be obtained by

the placing of the lens above the centre of the cross-front;

reference to the photograph of camera will explain this matter more

fully.



The swing-back should be a practical one, working from the centre,

and capable of being swung either to or from the lens.



In many of the cheaper front extension cameras it is not possible to

use the swing-back when tilting the camera down, only when tilting

upwards. The swing-front, although not an absolute necessity, is

undoubtedly a movement possessing great advantages, especially when

the front is raised rather high, and one is using a lens of limited

covering power. This movement should be acquired if possible.



The camera should possess double extension, focussing by rackwork,

and having a reversing back so made that it will fit on all ways; it

is then possible to draw the slide shutter out in any position.



In selecting a tripod stand purchase one of the kind known as the

sliding leg variety, two-fold is better than three, giving greater

sliding power. The top of stand should be as large as possible; this

is preferable to a turntable, as this piece of workmanship is seldom

rigid after a little use, and some difficulty is experienced when

trying to spread the legs out rather wide. A two-fold Ashford stand

is as good as any on the market.



The blocks herewith illustrate the kind of camera used by myself,

and with the exception of the turntable, which is not a great

success, it answers all requirements.



In the selecting of suitable lenses a great deal will depend upon

the inclination of the purchaser and the depth of his pocket.



There is such a great variety upon the market at the present time,

that to the young photographer the buying of the right lenses is

somewhat a difficult problem.



[Illustration]



[Illustration]



The Zeiss series are undoubtedly the finest obtainable and for

architectural work are unrivalled, possessing great covering power,

good marginal definition, and in fact very fine definition all over

the plate. The lenses of this series, although quite new, have met

with great favour amongst architectural workers.



They work at an aperture of _f_/18, but I understand that they can

be opened to _f_/16 and numbered on the _f_ system. As regards their

relative working capabilities they give about the same picture at

_f_/32 that the majority of wide-angle lenses give at _f_/64.



The Goerz anastigmats are also another very fine series but do not

give anything like the covering power of the last mentioned, and

moreover are nearly double the price. Their special merit is that

one can work at _f_/8 or _f_/11, and get a picture sharp up to the

edges. Taylor, Taylor & Hobson also make a good wide-angle lens,

possessing great covering power and at a moderately low price. With

one of their nine inch lenses I have covered a plate 12 x 10 inches.



[Illustration: "GATHER THE ROSES WHILE YE MAY, OLD TIME IS STILL

A-FLYING." ALEX. KEIGHLEY.]



For a whole-plate camera, a useful battery would be a 5 inches,

7-1/2 inches, 9 inches and 12 inches; for 10 x 8, 7 inches, 9

inches, 10-1/2 inches and 14 inches. The three last in each case are

the most useful.



Having selected the lenses, another very important point and one not

to be decided hastily is the question of levels. Four are required,

two circular and two ordinary. They are placed as follows: Fix the

circular levels, one on the baseboard near the front of the camera,

the other on the top of the back part of camera. The other two

should be placed one on the side of the back part and the other on

the back of camera just under the reversing back. Care must be taken

to purchase slow moving levels as some work so quickly that it is

next to impossible to level the camera with them, and as this is one

of the most important points in the whole business, too much care

cannot be taken in selecting and fixing the right kind of level.



[Illustration]



The focussing screen should be ruled as accompanying diagram. This

will divide the screen into inch squares, working from the centre,

and will considerably assist the photographer in "sizing his subject

up."



One other thing required is a set of clamps for binding the tripod

legs together. These are, I believe, made by George Mason, of

Glasgow, but any dealer will procure them for you.



The use of the right kind of plate constitutes a very important

factor in the production of a satisfactory negative, particularly in

this branch.



Owing to the greater difficulty experienced in developing extra

rapid plates, one generally sees the slower variety recommended. No

hard and fast rule can however be laid down. To gain the best

result, the plate must be suited to the subject.



For instance, in a very dark interior in which heavy black shadows

predominate, many of them appearing much darker than they really are

owing to their close proximity to a strong light, the quicker the

plate used the better. This tends to break down the harsh contrasts,

and at the same time the shadow detail is considerably better

rendered.



On the other hand, working in a light interior or one which is flat

owing possibly to the large amount of light present, a slower plate

can be used with advantage, and, providing the exposure is

sufficient the result will be all that is wished for.



Exteriors, particularly those in sunshine, should be photographed on

a fairly quick plate. Slow plates, although good, do not yield

nearly such good negatives, and unless very fully exposed give

excessive hardness.



Taking this class of work all round, the quick plate is the more

useful of the two and is undoubtedly the best for interior work,

particularly such interiors as one meets in our English cathedrals.



For all subjects possessing strong high-lights, such as windows,

stained or otherwise, rapid plates combined with a suitable backing

composition yield the best results, and I would impress upon the

reader the fact that no plate should ever be placed in a dark slide

without being covered at the back with a suitable composition for

the prevention of halation.



[Illustration]



The value of this agent is distinctly demonstrated by the

accompanying illustrations, and I would point out the fact that the

negatives were both developed with the utmost care. The unbacked

plate was so developed as to prevent the appearance of halation as

much as possible, and it will be noticed that all portions of the

photograph, other than that where halation has occurred, are nearly

as good in the unbacked as in the backed one.



Having obtained all the apparatus and materials, a very good subject

to begin on and one giving good opportunities for the exercise of

the various movements connected with the camera, etc., is a general

view of the choir in some cathedral or church near at hand.



Having erected the camera, the next thing is to decide upon the most

pleasing point of view.



Speaking from my own experience I would advise the shifting of the

camera either to the right or left, so that the centre aisle is

thrown slightly in perspective. This tends to give a much better and

decidedly more pleasing effect to the resulting photograph. Of the

two sides, moving to the right seems to be the best. The next item

is the fixing of your ground line, this must be so arranged that it

is quite clear, not obstructed by the backs of chairs, etc., which

look very badly if left standing. Personally, I have generally found

it necessary to move one or two rows of chairs so as to make the

ground line myself.



In adjusting the height of the camera from the ground it is well

never to exceed six feet. Five feet to five feet six inches is the

most useful height. This will give a photograph in which the point

of sight is the same as that of the person actually viewing the

subject.



The placing of the camera on step ladders, chairs, or other

supports, so as to overlook objects in the immediate foreground is a

practice to be condemned, giving results very rarely pleasing and

always bad from the sightseer's point of view.



Having settled upon the point of view and the lens to be used, the

student should then roughly focus the image. Notice the amount of

subject on the plate and how much rise is required.



If having a camera such as described, the rise is easily

accomplished and the camera can then be truly levelled up. Care

should be taken over this as unless you have the camera exactly

level you cannot expect a true picture. The bubbles of the levels

should be _exactly_ in the centre, _a little bit out will not do_.



[Illustration]



If it is found that the rising front fails to give the amount of

subject required, recourse must be made to the swings, and it is

here that the swing front triumphs over the swing back.



To swing the back necessitates the shifting of the camera and tripod

stand, and at once throws all the levels out of gear. Then comes

re-focussing, etc. Sometimes this will have to be gone through five

or six times before the desired amount of swing has been achieved.

Owing to the re-focussing required every time the camera is moved it

is very difficult, especially for the beginner, to rightly estimate

the amount of rise required.



With the swing front the desired amount of rise is attained easily

and quickly, and it can be worked with the head still under the

focussing cloth, which is a great convenience. At the same time the

baseboard and back of camera always remain level.



After gaining the correct amount of rise the sides of the subject

should be considered. A golden rule to remember in this class of

work is when you show a column, show the base of it, and always

start the sides of plate with either half or three-quarters of a

column. It looks very queer to see the bend of an arch wandering

away out of the side of the picture without any apparent support. In

arranging the sides it is usual to have a preponderance of subject

on the opposite side to which the camera is, and to start that side

with a column. Sometimes the subject fails to fit the plate nicely,

in that case it is better to trim the print than to have

uninteresting features present.



Of course a great deal depends upon the personal taste of the

worker, what one man considers right another will rebel against; so

although I advocate the use of columns to fill the sides of the

plate it does not follow that that is the one and only method of

photographing these subjects.



The student having carefully gone into these matters and arranged

the subjects to suit his own satisfaction the question of what point

to focus for arises, and indeed in very dark interiors the question

of focussing anything at all comes in. A method I use myself is to

roughly divide the distance from the camera to the farthest object

in half, and then to focus midway between the camera and the middle

of the subject. Then stop down the lens until the most distant

object is sharp. In practice I have found this rule so good that I

can recommend its adoption for all subjects, and if carried out

correctly will always result in the production of crisp negatives.



Exposure is not a very difficult thing to overcome. Arrange the

focussing cloth well over the head, open the lens out to its largest

aperture and remain under the cloth until you can see the image

distinctly all over the plate. Then without uncovering the head

proceed to slowly stop down until you can only just see the image

all over the plate. Now using a plate of the rapidity of Barnet

extra rapid, an exposure of ten minutes will yield a satisfactory

fully exposed negative.



The varying exposures for other plates and stops are easily

obtained. For instance you find the image can just be seen all over

at _f_/32 and you wish to use _f_/64 The exposure will be forty

minutes.



After having used this method for over seven years, and having

invariably found it correct, I can unhesitatingly recommend its

adoption, and if used with a little common sense the worker will

seldom suffer from his plates being either badly under or

over-exposed.



In photographing side aisles, transepts, or long rows of pillars,

the worker is often troubled by the unnatural way in which the floor

runs up. This is more especially noticeable when there are no

prominent objects in the immediate foreground. A considerable amount

of this can however be overcome by the lowering of the camera to

about three feet from the ground. It is here where the sliding legs

of the tripod stand become of service.



I would ask the student always to use the longest focus lens

possible, consistent with the effect desired.



The use of extreme wide-angle lenses has had a disastrous effect

upon the public taste in respect to architectural photography due

principally to the abortions one sees exposed for sale in the shop

windows of our cathedral cities.



It should be seldom necessary for the amateur to use very wide-angle

lenses. Of course, when it is a question of getting a detailed

photograph in a confined situation a wide-angle lens is of great

service. But it is when you see the whole length of a cathedral

photographed on a whole plate with a five inch lens that the fault

is so noticeable.



In photographing exteriors great care should be taken in the placing

of the camera in a suitable spot. Try and so arrange it that the

short side of the building does not run off too violently, indeed,

it is often much better to leave out a portion of the subject rather

than to cram the whole subject upon the plate.



General views are much better if photographed when there is a little

sunlight. This gives to the subject a sharp, clean-cut appearance.



Details on the other hand are better if photographed in a subdued

light and slightly over-exposed.



In focussing very high subjects some difficulty will be found in

getting bottom and top in focus at the same time, especially if the

lens be strained by either altering the back or front of the camera.



The best place to focus is a little way above the centre of the

screen, so that when stopped down the bottom of the building is

quite sharp. A slight softness towards the top of the subject is

scarcely noticeable in the final print.



The exposure of exteriors varies between three seconds at _f_/64 to

ten minutes, and no correct guide can possibly be given. To the

beginner a Watkins' exposure meter will here be of some service.



If people are continually passing and repassing stop the lens down

to _f_/64 and give as long an exposure as is possible; this will as

a rule completely obliterate them. I have found that an exposure of

from ten to twenty seconds entirely destroys all trace of moving

objects.



Another method of making an exposure where there is much traffic

past the building, and perhaps people standing about whom you cannot

very well ask to move, is, to break the exposure as many times as

possible. Expose for two seconds, then wait until the traffic has

somewhat altered; then give another two seconds and so on until

finished. By this means I have been able to photograph buildings in

the centre of a crowded street or thoroughfare without a trace of

anybody showing.



It is often interesting for the student to be able to successfully

tackle the photographing of drawing-room, ball-room, or other

apartments either of his own or friends' houses.



This work is considerably more difficult than it seems; and it is in

such subjects that the taste of the operator becomes manifest. A

great deal depends upon the point of view chosen and also upon the

arrangement of the furniture.



If a long room, the camera should be placed at one end at about a

quarter of the width of room away from one side and from the end

wall. Keep the camera parallel with the sides of the room and use

the sliding front so as to obtain more of the opposite side of the

room. This will give the ceiling a true square appearance and the

side of the ceiling will not run off with an unpleasing effect.



In some subjects it is perhaps necessary to include one or more

windows. This can of course be accomplished by the aid of backed

plates, but it is always better to block those particular windows

out. This is usually done by covering the outside with black cloth

or brown paper or pulling the sun blinds down. To get the effect of

the windows you must remove the paper or cloth at the end of the

exposure for a few minutes, three minutes being generally

sufficient. By this means it is possible to show the landscape as

seen from the window. Do not place your camera too high. Four feet

to four feet six inches is quite sufficient. If the camera is higher

you look over the immediate foreground objects, touching the ground

past them, which is undesirable.



In arranging the furniture be careful that round or oval objects are

not placed so that they appear on the edges of the plate which gives

them an exaggerated appearance.



In exposing on all such interiors I would strongly recommend a very

full exposure, the object being to flatten the subject. A great

thing to study in this branch of work is the careful lighting of

your subject. This can be largely varied by the use of the inside

blinds, also by the sun blinds found outside many windows. It is

_not_ advisable to draw the blinds up to their fullest extent. By so

doing you accentuate your cast shadows thrown by tables, chairs,

etc. In fact, the softer the light in the room coupled with a

corresponding exposure, the better the result. Another point to

notice is that a comparatively dull day is often the best for

interior work, the light being much softer and subdued. As a slight

guide to exposure I would suggest that an additional twenty-five per

cent. be added to that recommended for church work.



                                        _John H. Avery._









_The Hand Camera and its use._





[Illustration]



What is the best form of hand camera? How often this question is

asked, and yet how impossible to give any definite reply, the

conditions of use, and requirements of each worker being so widely

different. One, desires a form of apparatus, capable of being closed

up into the smallest space, weighing but the least possible number

of ounces, the necessary movements, confined to touching a spring,

or pressing a button, and the total cost not to exceed two or three

pounds, while others do not care so much as to its possessing these

qualities, if by a little increase in bulk, weight, and cost, it is

capable of use in a less restricted manner, on subjects of wide

variety, and under such conditions of light, and atmospheric

effects, as, when shutter exposures are being given, call for the

_maximum light passage_ to the plate.



Assuming the camera to be intended exclusively for use without a

tripod, then it becomes not a difficult matter to point out its

essential features. First and foremost, it should be characterized

by simplicity in construction, and every part be easily accessible,

complicated movements being rarely found necessary, except perhaps,

to raise the price of the instrument. When being employed in the

field, the camera and its working parts ought not to need the

slightest consideration, each movement, whether they be few, or

many, being made, without requiring troublesome attention at the

moment when every thought should be devoted to the subject.



The component parts of an instrument, complete and effective for

this class of work, may be taken to be a good lens capable of

covering at _f_/8, a shutter, some simple means of focussing,

adequate finders, and the means of carrying plates either in some

form of magazine, or ordinary dark slides.



Each system of holder for plates possesses its own distinctive

advantages, which are preferable, depending entirely on individual

needs, or tastes. Some admire one method, and some the other.



When plates are carried in one of the many forms of magazine which

cameras are nowadays fitted with, it is _important when re-charging

it_, that care be taken to see _each sheath and plate is laid true_

in its place, as the slightest irregularity at this point, means

certain trouble when changing a plate after exposure, indeed,

perhaps fifty per cent. of the misfortunes which occur when out at

work, from failure to act of the changing arrangements, _are

directly caused by carelessness when laying the plates in the

magazine_. Given reasonable care in this matter, almost any of the

modern automatic changing methods, may be relied on to answer

satisfactorily. When however the slight additional bulk, weight, and

it may be increase of cost is not objected to, then there can be no

denying separate dark slides possess many and important advantages.



No need to fear a wasted day, caused by some plate sticking, and

rendering further work impossible, without having recourse to a

dark-room, which probably is miles away; and again, one must not

overlook the opportunity they give of carrying plates of different

degrees of sensitiveness, a matter of service, when subjects to be

dealt with are varied, such as, say, clouds and water, landscapes

and figures. In the first case, when light is fairly good, the

ordinary speed plate will be found amply quick enough during the

daytime, and fifty per cent cheaper in price. When open landscapes

are being taken, during summer time, medium rapid plates generally

will be quick enough, but many opportunities, for pictorial work,

arise under conditions of atmosphere and light, in which to obtain

fully exposed negatives with a shutter, demands a plate of extreme

sensitiveness, and if for no other reason than that they offer this

opportunity of carrying a varied assortment of plates, many workers

prefer dark slides, to any form of magazine.



There are advantages, and disadvantages, with both systems, and it

becomes simply a question for each worker to consider which fulfills

his requirements best.



_The Lens._--Good work can be, and is done, with cheap single

lenses, but the opportunities offered are considerably restricted,

what is needed, being such a lens as may be used at full aperture of

_f_/8 or _f_/6, and will then cover the plate from corner to corner,

sharply. This is necessary not only because the actinic quality of

light is not always over good, but that moving subjects demand the

shutter should be working with rapidity, sometimes indeed with

considerable speed: under which conditions two factors are

absolutely essential, a large working lens aperture, and a rapid

plate. It is well, therefore, to _buy the best lens you can afford_,

it more than pays in every way. For 1/4-plate work, a _rectilinear_

of 5, or 5-1/2 in. focus, working say at _f_/5.6, and with iris

diaphragm, by one of the best makers, will allow work being done

under any condition of weather, or other circumstances, when shutter

work is possible.



_Finders._--Years ago, the question of whether finders were

necessary, or not, in a camera of this kind, was a matter on which

some at least expressed very different opinions, from those now held

by most workers. Further experience has shown that when certainty in

working is desired, some kind of finder is an absolute necessity as

part of the working mechanism. It usually takes the form of a small

camera obscura, what is required being, that it should not be too

small, should give a perfectly discernible image, and be so

adjusted, that only so much of it is shown, as will be projected on

to the sensitive plate, when the exposure is made. The reason of its

importance is that it _enables the subject being arranged_

tastefully, as well as ensuring that the whole of it is on the

plate.



Where no attempt at pictorial work is intended, and the important

matter is simply that the object being photographed should be in the

_centre of the plate_, then it is only necessary that the finder

should show as wide an angle of vision, or a little wider than the

lens being employed inside the camera. But when something more is

aimed at, _viz._: _Tasteful composition over the whole plate_, then

it is necessary to block out on the finder all excess of view,

beyond what will be received on the sensitive plate.



_The Shutter._--What particular form may be best is a matter of

doubt, but whatever it be, exposure must be possible without

vibration, it should give greater exposure to the foreground than

the sky, and ought to allow of being regulated for exposures ranging

from 1/4th of a second up to perhaps 1/100th for ordinary work.



Where shutter work has to be done, which demands anything less than

1/100th of a second, then special shutters for the purpose are

needed, but after having used hand cameras of one form or another

for the last nine or ten years on such classes of subjects as are

ordinarily dealt with, the occasions on which any greater speed than

1/30th of a second has been called for have been extremely rare. It

may be said this would not allow of taking subjects such as a close

finish of a cycle race and such like, which is quite true; did

occasion arise for so doing, then a shutter such as the focal plane

would be employed as a matter of course. But by far the greater

amount of work done with hand cameras would be the better for

receiving a longer exposure, better because light action on the

sensitive plate would be more thorough, and far better because when

slowly moving objects, such as waves rolling shoreward, are given

1/10th instead of 1/100th of a second, we get less of "_petrified

naturo_," and a more natural appearance in the resulting

photographs. As a general rule it is well to give the _slowest

exposure possible_.



_The Focussing Arrangements._--These need be only very simple, and

generally are done by scale to distances. As a rule with the lens

working at _f_/11, and the scale set at 15 feet, it will be found

that the depth of focus is sufficient for most ordinary work, and

any alteration in the focussing seldom necessary, when dealing with

subjects where figures are included, that are not required to be

approached much closer than the distance mentioned.



So far as may be necessary for _hand-camera work_ simply, the

instrument should be without complications, is better for having a

_good rectilinear lens_, needs a shutter easily adjusted for

exposures ranging if possible, from a 1/4th of a second, up to say

1/100th, properly adjusted finders, some means of quickly altering

the focus of lens, one or other method of carrying the plates or

films, and for _purely hand-camera_ work, there is _no need_ for any

other addition to it.



Passing away from the camera to its use, one is faced immediately

with the fact, that in spite of the multitude of such instruments

now in use, the _general average of results_ produced by its means

are, in quality, unmistakably below those done with a camera and

tripod, nor is the reason for this far to seek. In the latter case,

a plate of medium rapidity is generally employed, such an exposure

given, as makes no serious _strain_ on the developer used to bring

the latent image fully out; the action of light having been ample,

and the plate not so easily spoiled, as one of higher sensitiveness,

there is not that call for such skilful treatment, as where light

action on a highly delicate emulsion, has been but brief, and needs

to receive careful handling, before good, well-graded negatives may

be produced.



To use a hand camera is the simplest matter imaginable, to properly

employ it the most difficult--simple, because of the facility with

which plates may be exposed, difficult, because to succeed, demands

careful practice, and a thorough understanding of photographic

manipulation. We must have _learnt to see_, and that quickly, must

have gained coolness and self-restraint, and perhaps not the _least

qualification necessary is that of being a good photographer_.

Whether content to produce good straightforward representations of

such scenes as come before you, or more ambitious attempts at

pictorial work be made, they can both be done with the hand camera

quite as well, nay indeed, given sufficient technical skill, and

trained perception to see the beauty presented in line and mass,

it is by no means clear this form of implement does not offer

greater facilities for successful working, than the more complicated

form used with a tripod.



[Illustration: BIRCH AND BRACKEN. W. THOMAS.]



The choice of subject is only bounded by the limits of exposure,

speed of plate and actinic action of light available. The first has

already been touched upon, when the lens, and shutter, were dealt

with.



Plates have recently been so increased in speed, that it becomes

necessary to somewhat modify advice, which a year or two ago, might

have been perfectly correct, _viz._, to work with the fastest plate

procurable. But there is this advantage now, as then, that if some

convenient form of actinometer be used to test the light, we are

able to judge at once, what speed of plate will be necessary to deal

with each subject as it arises. There are several forms available,

amongst which, the one introduced by Watkins, made so that it

becomes a permanent part of the camera, answers remarkably well,

especially as it cannot be left at home, without being noticed. In

developing shutter-exposed plates, if full exposure has been

obtained, then the ordinary modes of procedure suffice, so also when

over-exposure occurs, but by far the greater proportion of failures

one sees in this class of work, arise simply _from under-exposure_.

There seems so much charm in driving a shutter at its highest speed,

and at the same time using the lens stopped down, to secure sharp

definition, the wonder is, not that failures flourish, but that any

good work is done at all.



With regard to particular developers there is only this to be said.

Whatever agent be employed, so arrange that before density is

obtained, _all the detail you require_ is first brought out; this

simply means, if pyro is being used, it is kept low, until the plate

is ready to be treated for density, then a further addition of pyro

and bromide will generally suffice to rapidly finish off the work.



When a batch of exposed plates is being dealt with, a most certain

method of negative making, will be found in employing in one dish,

either one or other of the following one-solution developers:--



                   NO. 1 FORMULA.

  Amidol                              20 grains

  Sodium sulphite                        1/2 oz.

  Water                                7  "



                   NO. 2 FORMULA.

  Dissolve in water                   20 oz.

  Metol                               75 grains



                      then add

  Sodium sulphite                      1-3/4 oz.

  Carbonate of soda (crystals)         1-3/4 "

  Bromide of potassium                 6 grains



                   NO. 3 FORMULA.

  Sodium sulphite                      1-1/4 oz.

  Carbonate of potassium                 1/2 "

  Eikonogen                              1/4 "

  Boiling water                       12     "



Any of the above developers will be found to rapidly bring out all

there is in the plate, and if over-exposure is feared, they may all

with advantage be diluted, with an equal quantity of water, in order

to slow down their action.



In another dish, it is advisable to have the following

_re-developer_, to impart density to the plates, as they become

ready for that operation, or to successfully deal with any, which

are found to have been considerably over-exposed, and upon which,

the first developer is acting too vigorously.





                     RE-DEVELOPER.

                         NO. 1.

  Hydroquinone                           1/4 ounce

  Sodium sulphite                      2       "

  Potassium bromide                      1/4   "

  Boiling water                       12       "



                         NO. 2.

  Washing soda                        2 ounces

  Sodium sulphite                     2   "

  Water to make                      12   "

              For use mix equal quantities.



By employing two different developers in the manner suggested, it

becomes a simple matter to produce good negatives, from plates

having had all kinds of exposures, some under, some over, and it may

be some which have had about the right exposure; in this way one of

the most fruitful causes of failure in the production of hand-camera

pictures, _error in exposure and development_, is minimized, if not

altogether done away with.



There are sometimes occasions when out with a hand camera, when

subjects present themselves, offering exceedingly good opportunities

for securing pleasing little pictures, but which require one, or two

seconds' exposure, to render them successfully. At such times it may

generally be arranged to rest the camera on a stone, wall, or gate,

or to hold it pressed against a tree, or some other rigid support.

As an example, the illustration of a woodside with birch trees,

facing page 136, may be pointed to. In this instance, when out

cycling, the place and lighting on the tree trunks, struck us as

pleasing, and worth trying to secure a record of, even though but a

hand camera was being carried at the time.



Having dismounted, and found a point from where it might be

attempted, and where conveniently grew a single tree, the lens was

opened to (if recollection does not deceive) _f_/11. Then the camera

jammed close to the tree trunk, and two seconds' exposure given,

taking especial care that no movement took place.



The plate being in due time carefully developed, and as far as

possible contrasts kept down, the result proved satisfactory

enough.



It could more conveniently have been photographed, of course, if a

camera and tripod had been available, but it is one of many such

instances, where, when shutter exposures only had been prepared for,

occasions arose, demanding longer exposures than were possible,

unless, some such temporary support be pressed into use, as in this

instance.



For successful work, see that the camera is simple, its parts, of

the best your pocket can afford. Give the slowest exposures your

subject will allow. Develop for softly modelled negatives first,

getting what density is required afterwards. See that the camera is

held perfectly steady, during exposure, and don't forget it is

simply a camera, and lens, and will require _you behind it_, just

the same as any other employed with a tripod, and in conclusion bear

always in mind, _it is the simplest form of camera work and the most

difficult_, making the utmost demands on your skill, if high-class

results are to be the outcome of its use.



                                        _W. Thomas._









_Lantern Slides._





[Illustration]



A lantern Slide is a transparent positive on glass or other

transparent support, usually 3-1/4 inches square, and is placed in

the lantern in such a way that by suitable illumination and optical

arrangements the image on the slide is made to intercept some of the

light given off by the illuminant from a screen, which without the

screen would be wholly and evenly illuminated by the light.



In viewing a paper print we are really observing the paper by

reflected light, part of our view being intercepted by the image

formed of pigment or reduced metal; the amount of light not being

very great a very thin layer of pigment is required to produce the

appearance of a sufficiently robust image. If the image alone or

with its vehicle be stripped from a good print on paper this image

viewed by transmitted light will be found to be extremely faint, far

too faint to be of any use as a "transparency," and also too thin to

be of any use as a lantern slide. On the other hand, what we know as

a "transparency," such as is often used for window decoration,

backed, perhaps, with ground glass, would be found much too dense or

robust for use as a lantern slide. In density, then, a "slide," as

it shall hereafter be called, comes between the image on a paper

print and that on a "transparency." In "gradation," or gamut of

tones, the slide ought to be superior to either the paper print with

its almost absolute clearness over large areas, or the transparency

with its dense shadows and its comparatively heavy lights. In fact,

in a good slide we have every grade of deposit from perfect

transparency to nearly complete opacity. But the extremes must be

very sparingly present, and the transition from one tone to another

must be gradual, all intermediate notes between highest and lowest

should be represented.



Other qualities go to make the perfect slide; the metallic or other

deposit forming the image must be in the utmost degree fine, no

approach to "grain" must be perceptible even under the highest

magnification. The colour, or "tone," must be not only pleasant but

appropriate.



The loss of light in its journey from the illuminant to our eyes is

enormous; the disc on the screen is simply a greatly magnified image

of the light, and here is great loss; add to this the interception

of some light by the opacity of the slide, and the fact that much

more is lost in reflection from the screen, and absorption by the

screen, and it is easy to realize that the image from the screen

reaching our eyes is vastly less bright than that reaching the eye

when, for instance, we examine a slide in the hand by transmitted

light. And loss of light means increase of contrast, so that a

slide which would seem about right in gradation in the hand would be

altogether soot-and-chalk as a screen-image. So too if we have in

the slide already shut out much light, by making the slide foggy, or

over dense, it is easy to see that when the image reaches our eyes

from the screen this vicious opacity will be immensely increased in

its mischievous properties. The first style of slide gives

screen-images sometimes called "midsummer snow-scenes"; the other

slide is simply called "foggy." Both must be assiduously avoided.



It need hardly be said that the plates prepared by some processes

are more likely to yield good slides, such as are described above,

than plates prepared by other processes; no one process can claim to

possess in itself superiority in all respects. Collodion, for

instance, is less apt to give foggy slides, and it is easier to

intensify than gelatine, but it is also more prone to give "hard"

images. Collodion is at its finest in the form of collodio-bromide

emulsion, which gives slides remarkable for fineness of grain, for

clearness, and for richness of tones; but when we have to copy in

the camera, the operation with collodion emulsion is protracted,

unless we have bright daylight or a condensing arrangement, which

with large negatives is often out of the question. On the whole it

may be taken that gelatine-bromide emulsion is the process to be

recommended, not only on account of its convenience and celerity,

but in view of the many inherent points of excellence that it

possesses. In any case, want of space will cause us to confine

attention here to that process, and any one mastering the use of

gelatine-bromide slide-plates will have nothing to fear from

competition with other processes in all-round work. The writer has a

leaning towards slide-plates as slow as he can procure them, because

slowness almost always goes hand in hand with fineness of grain and

freedom from fog.



There is one point of importance that should be noted in working

with gelatine for this purpose. Distilled water should be used if

possible for all solutions. Tap water--especially hard water--is apt

to produce with the gelatine a certain amount of scum which, if

present in any appreciable degree, cannot fail to affect the quality

of the slides; but treatment with an acid alum bath as described

later has a very salutary effect in removing any scum that may have

formed during the "liquid" operations.



In the mechanics of making a slide from a negative we have only two

methods to consider. If the slide-image is to be the same size as

the negative, or a part of the negative, we print by _contact_, that

is, we put the negative and the slide-plate face to face in contact,

and we expose to light, the negative being next to the light; this

corresponds with making a print on paper. But when we desire to make

a slide including all the subject of a negative larger than a

slide-plate, or, in fact, when we desire to alter the size of the

image at all, we copy the negative "in the camera." The simplest

method of doing this is to fix up the negative so that it is evenly

lighted and make a photograph of it in a camera; but the adjustments

necessary for such an operation would be found awkward, and so a

"reducing camera" of some kind is generally used. Many such cameras

are on the market, and consist of devices for holding the negative

in a suitable position with regard to a small camera furnished with

a lens and a dark slide holding a lantern plate. Either the

negative-holder or the camera should have possible movement in all

directions vertical to the optical axis of the whole, and in

addition it is often desirable to have a certain amount of movement

in other planes, in order to correct certain optical defects that

are sometimes found in negatives. The writer has for many years used

a small camera with its front stuck into the front of a large

camera, one or other of these cameras has every necessary movement.

The device is figured here.



[Illustration]



Whatever arrangement is used the end of the apparatus bearing the

negative is directed towards a good and even light; and it is well

to place about two inches in front of the negative towards the light

a piece of finely ground glass for ordinary negatives; this glass is

with advantage omitted with extra dense negatives.



It goes without saying that the exposure, whether we are working by

contact or in the camera is of the utmost importance; but it is not

possible in an article such as this to give even an approximate idea

of the exposure suitable under any concatenation of conditions. The

best clue to exposure is to be found in development, and in results.

It is necessary to know what happens after normal exposure with a

given developer, and then if any variation is noticed to alter the

exposure. If a plate develops more rapidly than the normal, it may

fairly be deduced that the exposure has been too long; but if we are

dealing with a specially contrasted negative it is better so. On the

other hand, when we are dealing with a thin negative, especially if

the scale of gradation is short, we require an exposure less than

what would under normal conditions lead to complete development in

the normal time. And again some plates require to be developed to a

greater point of apparent density than others; this is a matter of

experience. Briefly put, there is no royal road to good

slide-making, experience is necessary.



In actually making the exposures certain points must be kept in

mind. If we are copying in the camera with daylight as illuminant it

is very important to use the light from the north; if we use other

light we shall be much put out on most occasions by awkward

variations of the brightness. A very large number of operations are

rendered nugatory by carelessness in this matter. Even the most

experienced worker will find it impossible to expose plates with

anything like accuracy when he has to deal with direct sunshine at

one time, thin white clouds at another, and dark clouds at a third.

And in making exposures by contact the beginner must be fairly

accurate in judging the time of exposure and the distance from the

radiant. A good plan is to tie to the gas jet a piece of cord having

knots at convenient intervals, such as at 9, 12, 18 and 24 inches,

and in making an exposure to use these knots as guides to the

distance; moreover, the law of "squares of distance" must be

remembered; the intensity of light varies inversely as the square of

distance from radiant to receiver, provided, of course, no optical

arrangement is introduced to modify the path of the rays.

Consequently, for example, if ten seconds is found to be a proper

exposure at nine inches from the light, the corresponding exposure

at eighteen inches will not be twenty, but forty seconds (9^2=81.

18^2=324). And as it is sometimes awkward to hold the frame and

attend to a watch at the same time, a metronome, ticking seconds,

will be found convenient, or a clock with a second hand may be

placed where it can be seen during the exposure. A landscape slide

without clouds, if the horizon is in the picture, is usually

considered a failure, and has been dubbed "bald-headed." Really good

workers often put clouds into slides by "combination printing,"

which in some cases is comparatively easy, in others very difficult.

If we are working by reduction from a good-sized negative, with a

fairly even horizon, the difficulty is not great. The landscape part

of the negative is first exposed, the sky being masked if necessary,

and a cloud negative is then substituted for the landscape negative,

a part of the former being masked to correspond with the landscape

on the latter, and a second exposure is made on the same

slide-plate. Admittedly in all cases this requires "some doing," in

many cases it is extremely difficult. An easier, if less

"sportsmanlike," method is to make the cloud slide on a separate

slide-plate, and to use the latter as a "cover-glass" for the slide.

The cloud may cover the whole of the second slide, and that part of

it not required may be wiped out by means of a reducing solution,

used with a brush, such as the ferricyanide and hypo one described

later. This method will be found useful even in contact slide

making, but it also requires not only good taste in the selection of

the cloud, but some deftness in manipulation; but the neat-handed

beginner need not fear to make the attempt.





DEVELOPMENT.



It has already been stated that judgment of exposure is a matter of

experience, and that results are the best criterion; here follow

some more explicit statements on the same matter.



Whatever plate or developer is used, and whatever the time occupied

in complete development:



     _1st._--If by the time the high-lights are sufficiently

     strong the shadows are too dense or blocked, the plate has

     been under-exposed.



     _2nd._--If by the time the high-lights are sufficiently

     strong the shadows have not attained sufficient density, or

     are veiled, the plate has been over-exposed.



     _3rd._--If at the same moment the high-lights show

     sufficiently and the shadows are transparent but

     sufficiently plucky, the plate has been properly exposed.



     _4th._--With a normal negative the normal exposure is the

     proper exposure; but (_a_) a negative abnormally strong in

     contrasts will require an abnormally long exposure; and

     (_b_) a thin negative, or one with a very short scale of

     gradation from densest to clearest, will require an

     abnormally short exposure, with probably some

     after-treatment in the direction of "intensification."



Ambitious slide-makers generally aim at warm-toned slides for

pictorial effect, and rightly. But slides intended for scientific

purposes are generally better when cold in tone, the definition is

usually better. But whatever the aim, a good tone of one kind is

preferable to a poor one of another kind, and the beginner should

first make sure of getting a really good cold tone, which is

comparatively easy, and then try his "'prentice hand" on warm tones.



Warm tones are obtained by using greatly super-normal exposures and

greatly restrained developers; and the danger probably lies in the

fact that the long exposures are apt to lead to fog, and the great

restraint to over-density in the shadows, the latter especially when

the exposure has not been quite long enough for the developer used;

herein probably lies the whole secret of warm slide-making. If we

aim at really warm tones and use developers suited to such design,

we must on no account stint the exposure.





COLD TONE DEVELOPING SOLUTIONS.



[Illustration]



The classical solution for cold tone slides is a solution of ferrous

oxalate in potassic oxalate. Of all developers it is most free from

fogging propensities. It is made from so-called "saturated

solutions" of proto-sulphate of iron and potassium oxalate. Thus,

into a bottle put a quantity of iron proto-sulphate, and pour on

about three times its weight of water containing a dram of sulphuric

acid to each pint. Shake well, and keep always at about 60 deg. Fahr.;

some of the iron must always be visible in the bottle, if not, more

is to be added. The crystals of iron salt must be green and not

rusty in colour. This is the "iron solution."



The "oxalate solution" is made by dissolving potassium oxalate in

about three times its weight of water. This also must be kept at 60 deg.

Fahr., shaken occasionally, and oxalate added if none is visible in

the bottle.



To make the ferrous oxalate solution we _pour_ one part of the iron

solution _into_ six parts of the oxalate, and it is advisable to add

to each ounce of developer at least half a grain of potassium

bromide; 5 minims of a 10% solution, made by dissolving one ounce of

the bromide in about 9 ounces of water, and then making up to 10

ounces--all chemical.



In about four minutes or less this ought to fully develop a properly

exposed plate. If the development is much shorter the slide is apt

to have an unpleasant greenish tone, a result that may also follow

the use of an inordinate amount of bromide in the developer. The

developing solution may be made in quantity greater than is required

for one plate, and may be used several times if a little of the

surplus and fresh solution is added when the quantity in use becomes

slow in action.



For really fine cold black tones the following formula by MESSRS.

ELLIOTT & SON will be found admirable:--



                       A

  Metol                            40 grains.

  Soda sulphite                     1 ounce.

  Water                             8 ounces.



                       B

  Potassium carbonate             120 grains.

  Ammonium bromide                 24   "

  Potassium bromide                48   "

  Water                             8 ounces.



The developing solution consists of equal parts of A and B.



If either of the above developers is to be used, the exposure is to

be kept down as compared with the exposure to be followed by

developers intended for very warm tones.



The two developers which follow next, require about the same

exposure as the two already formulated. "Ortol" is a reducing agent

quite lately introduced by Mr. Hauff, of Feuerbach in Germany, and

Mr. Hauff's agents in this country are Messrs. Fuerst Bros., of

London. "Ortol" gives the finest tones of the warm black type that

we have as yet come across, it is singularly free from fogging

propensity, and the tones do not easily degenerate into the greens

so apt to occur after severe over-exposure with other "black"

developers. We suggest a simple formula:--



                       A

  Water                               20 ounces.

  Metabisulphite of potassium         75 grains.

  Ortol                              150 grains.



                       B

  Water                               20 ounces.

  Soda carbonate                       3-1/2 ounces.

  Soda sulphite                        2-1/2 ounces.



To make the developer, take one part of A, one of B, and one of

water, and to each ounce of the mixture add one and a half or two

grains of potassium bromide. The development of a properly exposed

slide will take two or three minutes, and the result will probably

be highly appreciated.



The above is worthy to stand alone as representing developers for

warm black tones, but the following works well. (Messrs. Elliott &

Son.)



                       A

  Hydroquinone                         80 grains.

  Soda sulphite                         1 ounce.

  Potassium bromide                    15 grains.

  Water                                10 ounces.



                       B

  Caustic soda                         80 grains.

  Water                                10 ozs.



The developing solution consists of equal parts of A and B, and the

plate may be fully developed in about two to three minutes.



It has already been stated that in order to obtain really warm red or

reddish tones by development, it is necessary to give very long

exposure, and to use a developer very much restrained. It is further

found that carbonate of ammonia has a considerable effect in

reddening the developed image, and so we now come to procedure based

on these lines. Carbonate of ammonia is found in commerce in the

shape of "chunks" more or less square. If one of these is pared with

a knife--unless the sample is quite fresh--the outside will be found

to be a soft amorphous powder, the inside a clear, very hard crystal;

the clear crystal is in development an "accelerator," though a very

weak one, the outside substance is a restrainer. Probably both the

inside--sesquicarbonate--and the outside--bicarbonate--are useful,

and the best plan is to make a ten per cent. solution of the

substance as obtained from a good chemist--not druggist. Of this

solution one grain of the salt is represented by ten minims. If now

we take an ounce of A, and one of B of the last formula, and if we

add to the ounce of A 3 grains of ammonium bromide, and to the ounce

of B 3 grains of ammonium carbonate, and if we have given a proper

exposure and develop with equal parts of the A and B modified as

above, we shall get a slide of rich chocolate colour; and if we

double the proportions of carbonate and bromide, and expose still

longer, we shall get a slide still ruddier in tone, even to red. But

there is always danger of fog, and of clogged shadows, and this must

be reckoned with. There is a more certain and less dangerous way of

getting handsome tones, which shall be described presently.



Gelatine slides are always fixed in hyposulphite of soda, about one

part by weight to six parts of water; after this they must be well

washed, say five minutes under a good rose tap, or in many changes

of water in a dish for an hour, and every slide should be treated

with a saturated solution of potash alum, of which each pint should

contain a dram of hydrochloric acid.



Very many, if not most, slides are all the better for just a touch

of a "reducer" such as follows:--The ordinary "hypo." solution is

weakened with about four times its measure of water, and the plate

is soaked for a minute in this. A few drops of a ten per cent.

solution of potassium ferricyanide are put into the measure, and the

hypo. mixed with it, and the whole allowed to work on the plate for

a short time, carefully watched. Of course a weak slide must not be

thus treated, but it is often a good plan to develop slides to such

a point that they will permit of this treatment.



On the other hand it is often advisable to keep a slide thin in

development, for instance, when the negative wants pluck, and

intensification is indicated; or when we wish a good warm tone after

a "black" developer such as our metol formula: a good average

treatment is as follows:--



Take half an ounce each of ammonium chloride and mercury bichloride

and dissolve in 16 ounces of water, soak the slide in this till it

is bleached. Wash well and treat with weak liquid ammonia, or a

solution of soda sulphite, or of metabisulphite of potash, or fresh

lime water. This will strengthen the slide and give it in most cases

a fine rich colour. It is important to let these solutions act

thoroughly, and not to stop the action half-way. The writer

considers this the best and safest way to obtain warm tones, the

reader may find out for himself which of these solutions produces

the tones he chiefly affects.



Crystal varnish is _not_ wasted even on a gelatine slide.



In conclusion, it must be realized that the screen-image is a

greatly enlarged edition of the slide-image; any small defect on the

slide is a huge one on the screen. Consequently the slide-maker must

sedulously cultivate cleanliness and manipulative care.



                                        _Andrew Pringle._



[Illustration: Fishing Smacks. W. Thomas. ]









_How to make Enlargements._





[Illustration]



Enlargements may be made by daylight, or by artificial light, and

there are two methods of producing them, namely, by enlarging direct

from the negative on to a sheet of bromide paper; or by first making

a small transparency, and from that producing an enlarged negative

upon a slow dry plate. The first is the method usually adopted by

amateurs, probably because the necessary operations are fewer, and

perhaps more simple. The second plan, however, possesses the

advantage that the prints may be made by any process, be it carbon,

platinum, or silver, and thus a great variety of effect obtained.



The first point however that the reader must decide is whether he

will work by artificial light or by daylight. Each may be said to

possess certain advantages, and with many the question resolves

itself into one of personal convenience. Artificial light is, or

should be, fairly constant in intensity, and if adopted there will

probably be less waste of material through miscalculation of

exposure. But if the source of light employed be other than a mixed

jet, or the arc-light, if in fact it be of low intensity, negatives

of a somewhat delicate type will be required in order to produce

enlargements of the highest excellence. If the negatives are dense

and strong, illuminants of low intensity, like oil or gas, do not

possess sufficient penetration to duly register the denser portions

of the negative, and the enlargements so made are apt to be

deficient in half-tone, and hard. With well-graded negatives of

suitable quality, however, most excellent enlargements may be

produced by artificial light. When artificial light is used work may

be carried on at any time of day or night, in winter or summer.

Those who adopt the daylight plan will, of course, be subjected to

greater restrictions, at any rate, during the winter months, but

amateurs who take a real interest in the work will do well to adopt

the writer's plan, and provide themselves with apparatus for each

method of working.





ENLARGING BY DAYLIGHT.



There are two ways of enlarging by daylight. The first involves the

exclusion of all actinic light from a room except that which passes

through the negative. The alternative method of working is to employ

an ordinary enlarging camera, such as are made by Middlemiss, or

Lancaster. It is desirable, but not necessary, if the first plan be

adopted, to secure the exclusive use of a room. One with a northerly

aspect should be chosen, for if sunlight falls upon the window

shadows will at some period of the day fall upon the negative, and

produce unevenly lighted enlargements. An upper room will be most

suitable, and, if the light be a northern one, and there are no

trees or buildings to obstruct the view, a reflector may be

dispensed with. If external objects intervene, however, one must be

employed. It should be fixed outside the window-sill, at an angle of

45 deg., and should be capable of adjustment. Let it be _the full width

of the window_, and _securely fixed_ for obvious reasons. A

plate-glass mirror is effective, but expensive. A large drawing

board painted dead white also answers well, but should not be left

outside exposed to the weather.



[Illustration: Fig. 1.]



[Illustration: side view ditto]



Provision for excluding the light from the room is best secured by

making a wooden frame large enough to fit closely against the window

frame. Upon this a piece of stout calico should be tightly strained

and secured with tacks. It should then be sized, and when dry will

be as tight as a drum; it must then be covered with two thicknesses

of stout brown paper pasted on. The frame is shown complete in Fig.

1. Now at AA. BB. screw two strips of wood, the distance apart

must be regulated by the size of the negatives to be enlarged. The

ordinary camera is intended to be used as the enlarging camera, and

the distance from C. to C. should be just equal to the size of the

back portion of the camera. On the lower rail BB screw a piece of 9

in. board to form a shelf or support D. for the enlarging camera.

Make a frame E. of 1/2 in. wood 1 in. deep, the same size as the

back of the camera, and screw to the shelf and top rail AA. Now

carefully cut away the brown paper and calico from the inside of

this frame, at the part marked H. and paste strips of brown paper

round it so as to prevent any light passing except through the

opening H. A strip of felt should be tacked all round the large

frame to prevent any light from creeping in between it and the

window frame. A couple of turn buttons will keep it in position. A

_firm_ table should be placed against the window close up to the

wall to form a support for the enlarging easel. Now a little care

must be taken in fitting up this portion of the apparatus, and it is

better to have something more exact than the propped-up drawing

board or printing frame, which is sometimes recommended. Get a

carpenter to run out two V shaped rails as shown in Fig. 2 at CC.

They should be about the length of the table, and screwed down upon

it. Procure a cheap drawing board about 15 x 12, and to the under

side affix two pieces of wood with V shaped grooves corresponding in

angle to the rails. This forms the base of the easel AA. Make a

frame 22 x 20, or rather larger than the biggest enlargement that it

is desired to produce. It should be constructed of 1/2 in. wood, and

be 2 in. deep. It is shown in Fig. 2 at 1 DDDD. Now make, or get

made, a set of carriers EE, the largest of which should just fit

into the frame. Narrow fillets of wood screwed each side will afford

a rise and fall adjustment, and a thumb screw at G will fix the

carrier in any desired position. To obtain the cross-movement screw

the frame DDDD to a piece of inch board 5 in. wide HH. Place this

exactly in the centre of the base board, and screw fillets II of 1

in. wood to each side. This will afford a cross motion, and a thumb

screw at J will fix the carrier frame when the necessary adjustment

has been made.



[Illustration: Fig. 2.]



In setting up an enlarging apparatus, whether it be for day or

artificial light, it is absolutely essential to preserve the

parallelism of its various parts, otherwise it will be impossible to

produce sharp or evenly defined enlargements, and for this reason I

have described somewhat fully the construction of a suitable easel.

I may add that it will serve equally well for either daylight or

artificial illumination, and I strongly advise the reader to

construct, or have constructed, an easel on the lines I have laid

down. With it either direct enlargements on paper can be produced,

or plates may be used and enlarged negatives made. The easiest way

of holding the paper during exposure is to procure two sheets of

clear glass, patent plate is most suitable, sandwich the bromide

paper between them, and secure with two strong bands of elastic. The

complete apparatus in position for working is shown at Fig. 3.



[Illustration: Fig. 3.]



[Illustration: Fig. 4.]



The second method of enlarging by daylight is by employing an

ordinary enlarging camera. The same conditions as to lighting, etc.,

should be sought for, and the most convenient way of working will be

to tilt the camera at such an angle as that the negative receives

unobstructed illumination from the sky. A reflector in this case

will not be necessary, but a piece of very finely ground glass

should be placed about an inch in front of the negative in order to

soften and diffuse the light. This method of working is shown in

Fig. 4.





ENLARGING BY ARTIFICIAL LIGHT.



Before describing the actual process of making an enlargement it

will be well to deal with the alternative method of working, namely,

by artificial light, as the manipulations of the sensitive material

used are the same in either case. Practically the most satisfactory

way of working by the latter method is to use an enlarging lantern

properly fitted with a condenser. The general principles of such an

apparatus are identical with those which obtain in an ordinary

optical lantern. Methods which dispense with the use of a condenser

are more or less unsatisfactory, and should be avoided. In the space

at the disposal of the writer it is not possible to give directions

for the construction of an enlarging lantern, but those who may

desire to make their own, will find full instructions and working

drawings in "[6]Practical Enlarging."



     [6] A Iliffe & Son.



[Illustration: Fig. 5.]



Enlarging lanterns of excellent quality are obtainable commercially,

but for the guidance of the uninitiated it may be useful to refer a

little in detail to one or two important points with regard to their

construction. The condenser will first claim attention. The ordinary

pattern consists of two plano-convex lenses mounted as shown in

section at Fig. 5. This answers fairly well with the smaller sizes,

but when the diameter of the condenser is large, a good deal of

light may be lost. The interposition of a small meniscus or

plano-convex lens, in the manner first suggested by the late J.

Traill Taylor, and shown in Fig. 6, will be found a great

improvement. Its proper position will be at the point where the

divergent cone of rays proceeding from it just covers the large

condenser. In our own practice we always place a diffusing screen of

very finely-ground glass in front of the condenser at EE The

diameter of the condenser is governed by the size of the negatives

to be enlarged, it must be of sufficient size to include the longer

sides of the plate within its circumference without cutting the

corners. If it is much larger than this, an unnecessary loss of

light will occur, because only that which passes through the

negative can be utilized.



[Illustration: Fig. 6.]



THE ILLUMINANT.



The smaller and more intense the light, the nearer we approach to

the ideal projection illuminant, and the better will be the

definition of our enlargements. The arc light most nearly fulfils

the desired conditions, and if it be available it should certainly

be employed. Next in point of utility comes the limelight,

preferably in the form of the mixed jet, and those who understand

its manipulation are recommended to adopt it, but the majority of

amateurs will probably find it more convenient to use either

incandescent gaslight or an oil-lamp. Parallel wick-lamps should be

avoided on account of the unequal illumination they produce, and if

oil must be used a good circular wick burner will be found more

suitable. Where house-gas is available the incandescent gaslight is

however much to be preferred. The light is perhaps not so powerful

as that given by a really good parallel wick-lamp, but it is far

more actinic and penetrating. The writer has used this light with

great satisfaction, and therefore has no hesitation in recommending

it. Some workers have been troubled by the appearance of an image of

the mantle on the screen, but this can usually be got rid of by a

suitable adjustment of the lenses and the light, and in any case by

the interposition of a piece of ground glass between condenser and

negative.





THE CHOICE OF THE LENS.



It is commonly stated that the lens with which the original negative

was taken will serve equally well to enlarge it, and in the abstract

the statement is perhaps not inaccurate. But assuming that a lens of

a focus equal to about 1-1/4 times the base of the plate has been

used, it will be found that better results, both in regard to

definition and equality of illumination, will be obtained by

substituting a lens of rather longer focus, for example a half-plate

lens for enlarging from quarter-plate negatives. This, although

applying to both methods of working is particularly desirable when

enlarging by artificial light, for an objective of small diameter

and short focus cannot possibly pick up or receive the whole of the

cone of rays proceeding from the condenser. A reference to Figs. 7

and 8 will explain why this is so. In Fig. 7 we see what happens

when a lens of too short a focus is used, but when one of longer

focus is substituted, the whole of the cone of rays passes through

and is utilized (Fig. 8). In selecting a lens one should be chosen

which has a sufficiently large diameter to permit the apex of the

cone of rays from the condenser to pass through. This point will, of

course, vary with the degree of amplification, and in order to

obtain the best results optically, the distance of the light from

the condenser must be carefully adjusted in every case, and a clear,

evenly lighted disc obtained before inserting the negative to be

enlarged.



[Illustration: Fig. 7.]



[Illustration: Fig. 8.]



With regard to the type of lens, one of the rapid rectilinear form

will answer well. A portrait lens is often used on account of the

brilliancy of image, but although it answers well for enlarging

portraits, the roundness of its field makes it less suitable for

landscapes unless it is considerably stopped down. If the very

finest results as regards definition are required, then one of the

now numerous flat-field lenses should be used. The writer can from

practical experience speak well of the Ross-Goerz and the Cooke

lens. The latter is perhaps preferable for working with artificial

light on account of the larger diameter of the back lens. Wide-angle

lenses, on account of their small aperture and short focus, are not

suitable for use with a condenser, both for the reasons given, and

on account of the difficulty in focussing owing to the small amount

of light transmitted. When daylight is used, however, there is less

objection to their employment.



[Illustration: Fig. 9.]



Before leaving this part of the subject it should be noted that in

regard to preserving the parallelism of its parts the same care in

erecting and fitting up the enlarging lantern must be observed, as

was insisted upon in the description of the apparatus for daylight.

It will be found convenient, therefore, to mount the lantern on a

base similar to that upon which the easel rests, so that both may

move on the same rails. The easel described for daylight enlarging

will serve equally well for working by artificial light. The

complete apparatus is shown at Fig. 9, which is a reproduction from

a photograph of the apparatus constructed and used by the writer.





THE NEGATIVE.



In general practice one may find it necessary at times to enlarge

from negatives of very dissimilar types, but there is no reason,

when the negatives are to be produced with the special object of

subsequently making enlargements from them, why care should not be

taken to make them of a suitable character. Thin delicate negatives

should be enlarged by artificial light; dense, strong ones by

daylight. If the negatives are very strong it will be difficult to

produce soft and well-graded enlargements with a weak illuminant,

the light not being sufficiently intense to properly penetrate the

high-lights. A soft and clear negative, with good gradation, fully

exposed, and neither exhibiting patches of clear glass shadow devoid

of detail, nor of hard impenetrable high-light, will be found most

suitable. Fog should be avoided, as also should the yellow stain

produced by pyro when improperly used. Not that the pyro developer

is unsuitable, for if sufficient sulphite is used, and the quantity

of pyro kept down, negatives of very beautiful quality for enlarging

purposes may be produced. Great care should be taken to avoid

bubbles, stains, scratches, or any kind of mechanical defects, as

such when enlarged become painfully obtrusive, and spoil the effect

of the best work. It will be found a good plan to bind the edge of

the negative before enlarging it with a strip of lantern slide

binding, so as to cover the clear glass rebate mark. If this be

omitted the margins of the enlargement may become fogged by the

lateral spreading action of the light. No hand-work should be

attempted on the original negative, for any such treatment will

become painfully apparent in the enlargement. If retouching be

deemed necessary, it should in the case of a direct enlargement be

executed upon the print itself, or upon the enlarged negative or

preferably upon the enlarged transparency, when that method of

reproduction has been adopted.





DIRECT ENLARGEMENTS.



The following concise instructions for enlarging upon bromide paper

will apply equally to the daylight or artificial light methods of

working. In the first case the negative is placed in the dark slide

of the camera, both shutters being drawn fully out. The camera is

then put upon the shelf close up against the opening in the shutter,

as shown in Fig. 3, any light creeping in between shutter and camera

being blocked out with the focussing cloth. If the enlarging lantern

is used the negative will be placed in the carrier, just in the same

way as a lantern slide, with the film side towards the enlarging

lens. Now the first difficulty that will be experienced will be to

get the enlarged image of the required size. It will be well to

content ourselves at the outset with a moderate degree of

enlargement, say from 1/4 plate to 12 x 10, and when proficiency is

acquired, larger sizes can be attempted. At first we shall probably

not succeed in getting any image at all. In adjusting the various

parts of the apparatus we shall find the work easier if we remember

that the nearer we place the lens to the negative the further will

it be necessary to move the easel from the lens, and the greater

will be the enlargement. A useful table of enlargements will be

found in the "British Journal Almanac," showing the distance of lens

from negative, and negative from paper, for almost any required

degree of amplification.



Now it will be found much easier to focus the enlarged image by

looking at it through a piece of finely ground glass, than by

receiving it on a piece of card or paper, and the adoption of the

easel plan of focussing previously described will enable this to be

done. The ground surface of the glass (which must be of the same

thickness as the piece behind which the paper is to be exposed)

should be away from the lens and towards the person focussing, when

it is placed in the carrier of the easel, it being retained in

position with the spring S., Fig. 2. Focussing must be carefully

performed, and is effected by sliding the easel to and fro upon the

runners, and which should have been previously rubbed with

blacklead.



Bromide paper is made in several varieties, such as smooth, rough,

snow-enamel, cream crayon, etc., and is put up either in tubes, or

packed flat. The latter is decidedly the more convenient, it being

somewhat difficult to take the curl out of paper that has been

rolled. The choice of paper is a matter of taste; for landscape work

the rough paper or the cream crayon will perhaps be found most

suitable. For finer work, and some classes of portraiture the enamel

will prove effective. Rough paper is better for strong broad

effects, smooth for more delicate work and the rendering of fine

detail. The coated side may be distinguished by its tendency to curl

inwards. The easiest way of exposing it is to procure two pieces of

patent plate glass of the same thickness as the focussing glass,

sandwich the sheet of paper between the two, and secure with strong

elastic bands. This will hold it quite flat during exposure, and

will not disturb the actinism of the lens or impair the definition

of the enlargement.





DEVELOPMENT.



This part of the work of producing an enlargement will only be

lightly dealt with, as the subject is fully treated elsewhere in

this volume. The writer prefers the ferrous-oxalate developer for

bromide enlargements to any of the more recently introduced

developers, but as it requires more skill and judgment to employ it

with complete success, beginners may find it better to use amidol or

metol, either of which when properly used gives excellent results.

Hydrokinone we do not recommend for this purpose owing to its

tendency to give rusty blacks in the event of over-exposure, or

undue hardness if it has been too short. With amidol a pure delicate

black is easily obtainable, and it is moreover a very simple

developer to use. Our own plan is to employ a weak solution and give

a full exposure, and by these means we find no difficulty in

obtaining good gradation and pure blacks. The dish used for

development must not be used for other developers or stains will

probably occur. Although a quick appearance of the image is usually

a characteristic of amidol, no trouble will be experienced when the

developer is used in the way we advise, for the picture will be

found to develop slowly and regularly, and gradually grow in

strength. Quick development by this method would be an indication of

over-exposure. A correctly exposed enlargement should take about ten

minutes to develop. One stock solution only is necessary. It will

keep indefinitely.



  Sulphite of soda        1 ounce.

  Citric acid            20 grains.

  Distilled water        40 ounces.

  Potassium bromide      15 grains.



To each ounce of the above add, just before using, three grains of

dry amidol. The exposure must be accurately timed. It is, however,

impossible to give useful information on this head, unless such

varying factors as the rapidity of the paper, the intensity of the

light, the aperture of the lens, and the degree of enlargement are

known. The best plan is to cut one of the sheets of bromide paper

into twelve strips, and on these make several test exposures,

carefully noting the duration of each. It is better (at any rate for

a beginner) not to vary the constituents or strength of the

developer, but to increase or diminish the exposure until a good

result in colour and tonality is obtained. By entering full details

relating to the production of a successful enlargement in a

notebook, great exactitude in working will be obtained, and there

need be little or no waste of material when additional enlargements

have to be made from the same negatives at a future time.





[Illustration: DRIFTING STORM CLOUDS. W. THOMAS.]



A glass dish, though expensive, is very suitable for developing, for

being flat-bottomed a minimum of solution can be used, and moreover

if the dish should be dirty, the fact is at once apparent. The

exposed paper should be soaked in water for a few minutes until

uniformly wetted, and any air-bells removed with a camel-hair brush.

The water is then poured off, and the developer applied in an even

wave, so that the whole of the paper is covered uniformly and

quickly. The image will appear slowly, and gradually gain in detail.

When all the detail has appeared it may still appear lacking in

vigour and contrast, but this will come if sufficient time be

allowed. _Development should not be stopped until the print is of

the full strength required_, but it is not advisable to allow it to

become much darker than it is desired to appear when finished,

because there is very little loss of strength in the fixing bath.



If the image flashes out immediately upon the application of the

developer, the paper has been over-exposed. A strong dose (one or

two drams) of ten per cent. bromide added to the developer may help

to save it, but the enlargement will probably look poor and flat and

of bad colour when finished. If the picture appears very slowly, and

refuses to gain in strength, under-exposure is the cause, and two or

three drams of a ten per cent. solution of sulphite of soda may

improve matters, but as a rule the most satisfactory plan will be to

make another exposure. With regard to the strength of the developer,

that given is very suitable for negatives of normal density, but

some papers may require a little more amidol, the appearance of the

finished enlargements will guide the reader in regulating the

quantity to suit the particular paper with which he may be working.

The enlargement should be washed in plenty of running water from the

tap to arrest development, and then fixed in:--



  Hyposulphite of soda       4 ounces.

  Water                     20    "



A quarter of an hour should be allowed for fixation, but it is

better to use two baths, giving ten minutes in each. After washing

in running water for a couple of hours they may be hung up by one

corner to dry, or pinned down to a blotting board.



Enlargements produced in the manner described should be of a pure

engraving black colour, and if they are mounted upon _pure_ boards

with _freshly_ made Glenfield starch, they should prove permanent.

Enlargements are frequently toned to various shades of brown and

red, generally by the employment of the uranium-toning bath.

Although the colours so obtained are often very artistic and

pleasing, no reliance can be placed upon the permanence of an

enlargement so treated, and the writer strongly recommends that when

warm coloured prints are desired, an enlarged negative should be

made and prints made therefrom in carbon, silver, or sepia

platinotype.





ENLARGED NEGATIVES.



The production of an enlarged negative presents no difficulty that

need deter any careful worker from attempting the work. No

additional apparatus to that already described will be required, and

either day or artificial light may be employed. In the first place

a transparency must be made from the small original negative. It

may be made either by contact or in the camera, preferably the

latter as then the acme of sharpness will be obtained. If, however,

the reader is acquainted with the carbon process he cannot do better

than make a carbon transparency, for such are specially adapted for

the production of enlarged negatives. Many, however, will prefer to

make the transparency on a bromide plate, and as this is the part of

the process which requires the greatest amount of care, and as _in

fact_ the _quality of the enlarged negative will entirely depend

upon the character of the small transparency_, it is necessary to

deal with the matter somewhat in detail. Preconceived ideas of

quality based upon the appearance of a good lantern slide must be

put aside, for that is not at all what is required. What is wanted

is a transparency in which every possible detail existing in the

negative has been reproduced, and which in comparison with a lantern

slide would look rather flat and over-exposed. Every possible

precaution should be taken to avoid granularity or coarseness of

image, therefore a slow plate is almost essential; plates coated

with lantern-slide emulsion are now obtainable, and will be found

very suitable. A full exposure should be given, and a weak and

well-restrained developer employed. These conditions tend to the

production of the qualities desired. Warm coloured transparencies so

produced generally have a finer grain than those developed to a

black or colder colour, but unless the colours produced are fairly

uniform, considerable variation in exposure when making the enlarged

negatives will be necessary, and for this reason it would perhaps be

better for the beginner to aim at the production of good black

transparencies possessing the qualities indicated.



The small transparency, having been fixed, washed and dried, should

be edged with black paper to prevent any subsequent fogging of the

plate, by the lateral spreading action of the light. It is then

placed in the enlarging apparatus, just as in the case of a

negative, and carefully focussed. This operation must be very

carefully performed. The writer uses a thin and very sharp negative

of an architectural subject to focus with, afterwards substituting

the transparency which is to be enlarged. Landscape subjects,

consisting chiefly of foliage, are seldom critically sharp, and it

is then difficult to secure a sharply-focussed enlargement. The

remainder of the operation is extremely simple. In the place of the

ground-glass screen (which in this case should have its rough or

ground side nearest to the enlarging lens) a slow dry plate is

placed, backed with a piece of cardboard covered with black velvet

to avoid reflections and possible fog. The exposure should be full,

and a weak developer employed. Trial exposures may be made on

quarter-plates, coated from the same batch of emulsion, which the

manufacturers will willingly supply, if the purpose for which they

are required is made known. Pyro will be found the most suitable

developer, but it should contain a full proportion of sulphite, and

not be too strong. Exposure and development should be so adjusted

that by the time every possible detail has been developed up, the

plate will not have become unduly dense. If expense has to be

considered, a piece of slow smooth bromide paper may be substituted

for the large dry plate in which case the result will be an enlarged

paper negative. For large sizes, 15 x 12 and beyond, the latter is a

very economical method of working, and the negatives will be found

to yield most artistic prints, and if the operations have been

carried out as described, and the prescribed conditions carefully

observed, the grain of the paper will not show obtrusively or

unpleasantly in the prints.



An alternative method of working, and one which admits of a large

amount of control over the ultimate result, is to make in the first

place a large transparency of the full size that the enlarged

negative is desired to be. All the precautions upon which stress has

been laid should be observed in regard to the choice of plate,

developer, etc.; but in this case the enlarged transparency may be

given a little more vigour and sparkle than would be desirable if

the other method of reproduction were adopted, though in this the

reader must be guided by the particular effect which he may be

seeking to produce in his prints. For this purpose pyro will be

found to be the most suitable developer, in that it permits of a

large amount of control. From the large transparency a negative is

produced by contact printing either upon a plate, or upon a piece of

bromide paper.



The great advantages of the latter mode of working are the

facilities which are afforded for retouching or working upon the

large transparency. Negative retouching is always a difficult

operation to an amateur, for he cannot see the effect of his work

until he has made a print; whereas, in retouching a transparency the

effect produced by each stroke of the pencil or brush is at once

apparent. In the space at disposal it is not possible to describe

the various ways in which improvements can be effected. First there

are the chemical aids of local intensification or reduction. Then

much may be done by the judicious use of a pencil, but the part to

be retouched must first be lightly rubbed with a little retouching

medium in order to make the pencil bite. In extreme cases the back

of the negative may be covered with tissue paper upon which a stump

and chalk may be used _at discretion_.



The novice must not be disappointed with the appearance of his

enlarged negative when it is finished, nor should he form an adverse

opinion of its printing qualities until he has made a print from it.

Confessedly an enlarged negative generally presents a different

appearance to one that has been taken direct, and may even seem to

lack some of those qualities that are commonly regarded as essential

to perfection, but if the final result, the picture, comes up to our

expectations, we may surely dismiss any lingering doubts as to

whether the enlarged negative conforms to certain preconceived

notions of technique, and it should be enough for us to know (and

the fact is incontrovertible) that some of the finest and most

artistic photographs ever shown owe their existence to this method

of production.



                                        _John A. Hodges._



[Illustration: Walberswick. By Rev. A. H. Blake.]









_P.O.P._





[Illustration]



The three letters "P.O.P." are now so widely understood as referring

to the Gelatino-Chloride Printing-Out class of Papers that it may be

said that P.O.P. is known to many who are not acquainted with the

fully-written name of this class of productions.



Also it should be mentioned that when these papers are spoken of as

gelatino-chloride papers it is not to be concluded therefrom that

chloride of silver is the only silver salt present. What they do

actually contain is probably only known to their respective

producers. But generally speaking, it is enough to say that so far as

the ordinary consumer is concerned, the family resemblance is so

strong and chief characteristics so general that the following

directions for using them may be held as generally applicable to the

various well-known brands now on the market. At the outset, however,

it will be convenient to note that for the purposes of manipulation

we may roughly group them into two chief classes--_viz._, the matt

(probably from the German word "matt," _i.e._, dull) and the glazed,

glossy or enamelled. The latter comes to us with a highly glazed,

_i.e._, shiny smooth surface, the former being slightly rough, of a

surface and texture somewhat like that of very finely ground glass.



_Care of the Paper._--The paper is sent out either in the full-sized

sheet, measuring about 24 x 17 inches, or in smaller cut sizes,

suitable for the usual 1/4, 1/2, 1/1 plate and other popular

dimensions of plates. Compared with albumenized print-out paper,

P.O.P. is more sensitive to light; therefore, some care must be

taken to avoid needlessly exposing it to the influence of daylight

or strong artificial light. For example, the printing frames should

be filled as far away from any window as possible, and the prints

examined from time to time either by gaslight or as feeble daylight

as possible.



In handling the paper--cutting it up, etc.--care must be taken to

avoid touching the sensitive surface with the fingers in any case.

The touch of a moist or hot finger is very likely to produce a mark

or stain which is usually irremovable. The paper should be protected

from damp, excessive heat and impure air. If kept _rolled_ in a tin

tube or _flat_ under pressure in the original packages, it will keep

a considerable time--_i.e._, longer than ordinary albumenized paper.



_Printing_ is done in the usual way. Strong diffused light reflected

from the sky or clouds usually gives a better print than direct

sunshine. In case, however, of a thin flat negative--_i.e._, one

with insufficient contrast--good results may sometimes be obtained

by covering the printing frame with a sheet of green glass and

printing in moderately strong sunshine. In hot summer sunshine it is

as well to cover the green glass with a sheet of tissue paper or

fine-ground glass. Care must be always taken when printing in

sunshine or very hot weather to see that the negative itself does

not get too warm, or the paper may stick to it. In this case the

print is of course lost, and the negative, unless varnished, is also

probably seriously damaged by silver stains, which are very

difficult to remove. Printing should not be carried quite so far as

in the case of ordinary albumenized paper because in the subsequent

operations of toning, etc., not so much strength is lost. The same

care as regards shielding from light, etc., should be given to the

prints after they leave the printing frame. They may be proceeded

with at once or kept for some days before being toned, etc., but if

this is done the prints should be kept under pressure. Some workers

have thought that the light action goes on, "continues" in the print

after it is removed from the printing frame. This, however, is not

the generally received opinion.



_Washing._--It is important that the first washing should be done

with some care, or the prints may become stained. The points calling

for attention are (1) running water and plenty of it, (2) care to

see that the prints do not stick together. What is needed is that

the soluble salts should be washed out of the paper as quickly as

possible, and that the prints be not allowed to remain in the water

containing these soluble salts longer than is necessary. Hence the

advantage of running water and plenty of it. The washing water must

not be too cold or the salts will not pass out of the paper quickly

enough; and again, it must not be too warm or the gelatine will

melt. The best temperature is about 65 deg. F., and the limits should

not go beyond 60 deg. and 70 deg. F., and preferably are kept within 60 deg.

and 65 deg. F. As the paper is usually rather stout, it will need

washing in running or constantly changed water for about ten to

fifteen minutes, and in any case must be continued until all milky

appearance of the water ceases. The print at this stage has a

red-brown colour. If it is now passed direct into the fixing bath

without toning it becomes somewhat more yellow, and when dry is

usually a colour somewhat between yellow ochre and sienna.



_Toning_ is usually our next operation, and for this purpose we have

a variety of toning baths recommended by different workers. The

sulphocyanide and gold is perhaps the chief favourite.



  1. Ammonium sulphocyanide      10 to 15 grains.

     Gold chloride                1 grain.

     Water                        8 to 10 ounces.



The proper way to mix this bath is to add the gold to the solution of

sulphocyanide a little at a time. The following method will be found

convenient. As ammonium sulphocyanide is somewhat deliquescent, it is

convenient to keep it in solution. Therefore, one ounce of the salt

dissolved in twenty ounces of (distilled or filtered rain) water

gives us roughly a strength of twenty-two grains per ounce. Dissolve

the contents of a fifteen-grain chloride of gold in fifteen drams of

distilled water. To mix a bath, take of the sulphocyanide solution

half-an ounce; to this add eight ounces of water. Now take one dram

of the gold solution and dilute with one ounce of water. Then add

this dilute gold solution a _little_ at a time to the eight ounces of

sulphocyanide solution, and stir well with a glass rod. It will be

noticed that as the gold solution drops into the sulphocyanide

solution an orange-red precipitate is formed, which is redissolved

on stirring. Hence the gold must be added to the sulphocyanide, and

not _vice versa_.



2. Another favourite bath is as follows:--



  Ammonium sulphocyanide      22 grains.

  Soda sulphite                2   "

  Gold chloride                2   "

  Water                       20 to 25 ounces.



Instead of weighing out two grains of sulphite it is more convenient

to weigh twenty grains and dissolve in two-and-a-half ounces of

water--_i.e._, at the rate of one grain per dram of solution. Thus,

to mix this bath, take an ounce of the above-mentioned sulphocyanide

solution dilute with twenty ounces water. To this add two drams (1/4

oz.) of the sulphite solution. Then take two drams of the gold

chloride solution and dilute with an ounce of water, and add slowly

with stirring as before.



3. Another favourite bath is:--



  Sodium chloride (table salt)      60 grains.

  Ammonium sulphocyanide            15 "

  Gold chloride                      2 "

  Water                             10 to 12 ounces.



Some of the adherents of this bath recommend that the prints be only

washed in running water for a few minutes and then put into the

toning bath. Others advise the prints to be immersed in the toning

bath without any previous washing--_i.e._, straight from the

printing frame.



4. Here, again, is another bath which usually yields excellent

results:--



  Soda phosphate                     5 grains.

  Sodium chloride (table salt)      20  "

  Gold chloride                      1 grain.

  Water                             10 ounces.



5. Other workers omit the sodium chloride and increase the phosphate

and get good tones.



  Soda phosphate      20 grains.

  Gold chloride        1 grain.

  Water               10 ounces.



6. Others, again, combine the phosphate and sulphocyanide baths

thus:--



  Sodium phosphate            10 grains.

  Ammonium sulphocyanide      15  "

  Gold                         1  "

  Water                       10 ounces.



The various toning baths mentioned above have one drawback common to

them all in varying degrees--_viz._, that when once mixed and used

they do not keep in good working order longer than a few hours.



7. The following bath claims to have the advantage that it will keep

in working order for a short time at any rate, but the disadvantage

that it cannot be used until it has been mixed twelve to twenty-four

hours.



  Soda acetate                60 grains.

  Ammonium sulphocyanide      20  "

  Gold chloride                1 grain.

  Water                       12 ounces.



Toning should be conducted in very weak daylight, or what is much

better, gas or lamplight. The latter, being practically constant,

enables the operator to judge the relative colour of the prints from

time to time. Care must be taken so that the prints do not stick

together in the toning bath, and preferably only a few, say

half-a-dozen or so, dealt with at a time, so that each print can be

frequently turned over and examined. The change of colours proceeds

somewhat slowly at first, but when once it begins it seems to gain

in rapidity of rate of change, so that a careful watch must be kept.

Let it be remembered that the print, after fixing and drying, will

appear a little darker and more blue (less red) than when wet in the

toning bath. The temperature of the bath must not be too cold or

toning is very slow, nor too warm or the gelatine may melt and

toning be uneven. From 60 deg. to 65 deg. F. will be found a convenient

range. The prints should not be touched on their printed surface

more than can be helped. The fingers must be quite clean, the

solutions uncontaminated with other chemicals, and a dish set apart

for toning operations only. This dish should always be washed out

well with tepid or cold water before and after use, and when put

away should rest flat, opening downwards, on a shelf covered with a

sheet of clean blotting paper. Many failures in toning are entirely

due to lack of care in details and sufficient attention to

cleanliness.



When toning is judged to be carried far enough, the prints should be

placed in a roomy dish containing a solution of common salt,

strength one ounce to twenty or thirty ounces of water, to stop

further toning.



Fixing is done with a "one in ten" solution of sodium

thiosulphite--_i.e._, hypo. This should be prepared with tepid

water, or some time before use, as the dissolving of hypo in water

is accompanied by a fall of temperature. A convenient method is to

place a couple of ounces of hypo in a clean pint jug, and add about

half a pint of fairly warm water and stir with a glass rod until the

salt is dissolved, then fill up the jug from the tap with cold

water. It is highly desirable to have plenty of fixing solution, and

never attempt to use the same lot twice. Place each print face down

in the bath and submerge by pressing on its back. Again see that the

prints do not stick to each other, and turn each print two or three

times. They should be in the fixing bath not less than twelve or

fifteen minutes, and a few minutes longer will do no harm. At the

end of, say, fifteen minutes, pour away about one half of the fixing

bath and slowly fill up with water. Turn the prints again, and then

transfer them one by one to another roomy dish and wash in running

water for a couple of hours, or in a dozen changes of water every

five or ten minutes. Then hang up to dry, using either clips or pin

a corner to the edge of a wooden shelf or long lath suspended in a

cool, airy place.



_Alum Bath._--Hot weather considerably increases the danger of the

gelatine melting. To meet this trouble the following plan has to be

resorted to:--



8. Dissolve common (potash) alum, one ounce in a pint of tepid

water. Let it stand until cold and pour off gently the clear part

should any sediment appear. After washing and before toning, place

the prints in this alum bath for about ten minutes and _again_ wash

before toning for ten or fifteen minutes in running water.



_The Combined (Toning and Fixing) Bath._--The general weight of

opinion is _not_ in favour of combining these two operations at one

time when reliable results are desired. Nevertheless, there are

times when this method may be found a convenience and yield results

which are all that may be desired. The following bath is a favourite

with some workers:--



  9. Ammonium sulphocyanide      15 grains

     Table salt                  30 grains

     Hypo                         2 ounces

     Water                       10 ounces



To this is _slowly_ added one grain of gold chloride in half an

ounce of water. The prints first washed for five or ten minutes in

running water, and placed in the combined bath and kept moving by

being constantly turned over and over for about ten or fifteen

minutes. The longer they remain in the bath the more blue and less

red will they be when dried.



Here is another bath which finds some stout supporters:--



  10. Ammonium sulphocyanide      20 grains

      Hypo                         1 ounce

      Alum                        30 grains

      Water                       10 ounces



Shake well, until thoroughly dissolved, then add



  Lead nitrate      20 grains



Again shake well and set aside to settle, pour off the clear part,

and add



  Gold chloride      1 grain



dissolved in half an ounce of water.



Others recommend a still more simple bath as follows:--



  11. Hypo               1 ounce

      Water              8 ounces

      Gold chloride      1 grain



It is said that this bath gives better results if it is prepared a

few hours before use, _e.g._, prepared in the morning and used in

the evening. Meanwhile, it should be kept away from daylight, and

not in a very cold place.



_Drying and Glazing._--Some workers are of opinion that it is better

to first "rough dry" the prints, _e.g._, by suspending by clips, or

pinning one corner to a strip of wood, etc., and then to wet again

and dry on a rough or smooth surface according as a matt or glazed

final effect is desired. If however, the print has been through the

alum bath (No. 8.) this preliminary rough drying may not be

necessary.



_Matt Surface._--The matt paper when rough dried has a matt or

slightly rough surface, but it may be desired to accentuate the

effect. This may be done as follows:--Thoroughly clean with soap

water and a nail brush a sheet of "fine-ground" glass similar to

that used for a focussing screen. When quite dry, lightly dust it

with fine talc powder (French chalk) and polish off again with a bit

of clean rag. Now slip this plate rough side up into a dish of cold

water, which also contains the print face downwards. Bring the print

and glass into contact under water, carefully avoiding any air

bubbles between them, as the two together are now raised from the

water; firmly, evenly, but lightly pass a squeegee over the back of

the print now in contact with the glass. Then lightly press a sheet

of blotting paper over the print to take up all adhering water, and

set up in a cool airy place to dry, _e.g._, in a passage or between

the door and half-open window. When quite dry, the print will very

probably of itself come away from the glass, but if not, the finger

nail inserted under one corner and a gently backward pull will

separate it from the glass. In place of the fine ground glass,

rougher glass of course may be employed. Some workers also use for

the same purpose a sheet of roughened celluloid. This is more costly

than glass, but being not so fragile may prove cheaper in the end.



_Glazing Prints_ is done exactly in the same way, with the single

difference, of course, that we use a _smooth_ piece of glass,

vulcanite, celluloid, paper mache slab, sheet of ferrotype metal,

etc., etc., in place of a ground-matt, or rough surface. All the

above-named substances have their partizans; perhaps the greatest

favourite being good plate glass free from scratches. In all cases

it is important to attend to two points, _viz._, thoroughly cleaning

the support and waxing it. Various substances and mixtures have been

recommended for giving a glaze, polish to the glass, etc. Many

workers adhere to the powdered talc or French chalk already

mentioned. Others prefer some of the mixtures given below:--



  12. Bees wax        20 grains

      Turpentine       1 ounce



  13. Spermaceti      20 grains

      Benzole          1 ounce



A few drops only of the lubricant are applied to the glass plate

with a bit of clean flannel, and well rubbed all over. Then a final

polish is given with a clean old silk handkerchief, or clean dry

wash leather. On no account attempt to strip the print from the

glass until the print is _quite_ dry or failure is more than likely

to arise.



_Mounting._--Care should be taken that the mountant does not give an

acid reaction. Test with litmus paper. Clearly it is no use being at

the trouble of producing a high gloss on the print if we are going

to damp the print and so destroy the gloss in the operation of

mounting. To avoid this, various plans have been adopted.



(1.) If a cut-out mount is used it will suffice if the print be

attached to the mount by glue at the edges only of the "cut-out."

(2.) Another method is to paste down on to the back of the print

before it is quite dry, and while still on the glazing support, a

backing of thin waterproof paper specially prepared for this

purpose. This prevents the moisture of the mountant penetrating to

the print. (3.) Another plan is to use a mountant which does not

contain water. The following mixtures are recommended:--



  14. Masticated rubber      10 grains

      Benzole                 1 ounce



A thin layer of this is applied by means of a short, stiff, flat

hog's hair brush to the back of the print. It is then allowed to

evaporate for a minute or so, and when tacky is applied to the

mount, covered with a sheet of glazed paper, and a roller squeegee

passed over the surface.



     15. Saturated solution of bleached shellac in alcohol.



This must be applied as thinly as possible.



     16. Le Page's fish glue applied to the edges only of the

     back of the print.



A fourth method is to first carefully clean the edges of the glass

surrounding the print still adhering to it. Then to paste down the

mount to the print and let all dry. Then strip the print from the

glass now already mounted. This is, however, a process not to be

recommended, because requiring a long time for the print to dry, as

the evaporation has to take place through the substance of the

mount.





ADDITIONAL PROCEDURES WITH P.O.P.



_Development of Partially Printed Proofs._--This method of procedure

is sometimes a matter of convenience in dull weather, etc. The

printing is to be carried on until one can just see a very slight

indication of detail in the high-lights. It is then washed in

running water for about ten minutes, and then put into a ten per

cent. bath of potassium bromide, and there it remains for another

ten minutes or so. In this bath some of the image seems to fade

away, and generally the print takes on a yellow tinge. The print is

next washed in running water for about ten minutes, and then

developed with ortol, metol, or preferably, hydroquinone. A

considerable variation in the proportions of the constituents of the

developer are possible. In general terms, one may say that a

developer which gives a good black and white lantern slide when

diluted with about an equal quantity of water will give a

satisfactory print.



17. As an example of a thoroughly practical developer for this

purpose we may give just one example:--



                     A

  Hydroquinone                  70 grains

  Potassium metabisulphite       5   "

  Potassium bromide             30   "

  Water                         20 ounces



                     B

  Soda sulphite                  1 ounce

  Caustic soda                  60 grains

  Water                         20 ounces



Take equal parts and mix just before use, wash for at least ten

minutes in running water at once after development.



Developed prints may be toned in the combined bath 9, 10 or 11, or

may first be fixed, then _thoroughly_ washed, and then toned and

again washed.



If good results are wanted by the development process it is

important to be careful that the paper is not exposed even to weak

daylight more than can be helped, and not even to strong artificial

light more than is necessary. At the same time it is quite

practicable to do the operation of the bromide bath and developing

in fairly strong gaslight, _i.e._, one need by no means be limited

to the ordinary dark-room light as when developing plates.



Another point worth noting is that it is quite practicable to use

magnesium ribbon for printing. For a rather thin negative it will be

perhaps found sufficient to burn about a foot of the metal ribbon

about three or four inches from the glass. The printing frame should

be set up on edge in the vertical plane. The strip of metal ribbon

is held by a pair of pliers, and ignited at the flame of a candle or

spirit lamp. The lid of a biscuit box just in front of the frame

does very well to catch the white magnesium oxide formed by burning.

It is as well to move the flame of the burning metal opposite

various parts of the negative during the exposure. It will be found

a comfort to wear a pair of rather dark blue glasses during this

operation, as the bright light of combustion prevents one seeing

anything with ease for a little while.



After development the print may be fixed only, and under certain

conditions it is possible to obtain a fairly satisfactory black or

brown colour without toning, but there is usually a slight tendency

towards rather too much yellow.



_Platinum Toning._--This method of toning is a favourite with many

workers. By it a considerable variety of colour tones may be

obtained, from a rich red chocolate brown through sepia brown to a

warm black.



The following toning baths have each their several advocates, and

each worker must discover by experiment the one that gives him the

particular brown colour he prefers:--



  18. Potassium chloroplatinite      1 grain.

      Water                          1/2 ounce.



Add dilute nitric acid (one part strong acid, twenty parts water)

drop by drop until the mixture just turns a bit of blue litmus paper

a red tinge. Now take a glass rod and make of it a mop by tying a

small bunch of clean cotton wool over one end, using for the purpose

a bit of white cotton. Having thoroughly washed the print for _at

least_ ten minutes in running water, lay it face up on a sheet of

glass, and apply the above toning solution with the cotton wool mop.

Having got a tint or colour nearly what you want, but allowing for a

loss of red in fixing, wash off the toning solution and immerse the

print in:--



  19. Washing soda       1 ounce.

      Water             10   "



for three or four minutes, and then fix in the usual way in a ten

per cent. hypo bath.



Here are some platinum toning baths well recommended:--



  20. Lactic acid                2 drams.

      Water                     12 ounces.

      Pot. chloroplatinite       2 grains.



  21. Citric acid               20 grains.

      Water                     10 ounces.

      Table salt                20 grains.

      Pot. chloroplatinite       2 grains.



  22. Phosphoric acid            3 drams.

      Water                     10 ounces.

      Pot. chloroplatinite       2 grains.



The chief points to bear in mind in platinum toning are: (1) that

the print must have practically all the free silver washed away

before toning. To this end it is a very good plan to dip each print

for a couple of minutes or so in a bath of table salt one ounce,

water ten ounces, and again rinse under the tap for a minute or

two.



(2) That the toning bath is acid, therefore one must either

neutralize this acidity by passing through an alkaline bath, such as

No. 19, or what perhaps is rather more convenient, though not quite

so desirable--_i.e._, using a fixing bath made distinctly alkaline.

The following proportions are recommended:--



  23. Hypo               1 ounce.

      Water             10 ounces.

      Soda sulphite     1/2 ounce.

      Washing soda      1/2   "



_Toning with Gold and Platinum._--A large number of experimenters

have tried to find out how to produce platinotype-like effects with

P.O.P. papers. Perhaps none of them have been completely successful.

The following procedure, however, seems to give the nearest approach

to that ideal.



The best results are obtained with a slightly matt-surfaced paper.

This should be printed a shade or two deeper than the print is

intended to appear finally. The print is well washed and then

_partly_ toned in a gold bath:--



  24. Soda acetate       30 grains.

      Borax              25   "

      Water              10 ounces.

      Gold chloride       1 grain.



It is then washed for a minute or so, and the toning continued in

the following bath.



  25. Phosphoric acid           1 dram.

      Water                     5 ounces.

      Pot. chloroplatinite      2 grains.



Wash for five minutes and fix in bath 23.



_Intensifying and Reducing P.O.P._--When the negative is obtainable

and printable it is _very_ much better, and altogether more

satisfactory to make a fresh print than to attempt to intensify or

reduce an unsatisfactory one.



Nevertheless, it sometimes happens that this course is not possible,

and the best has to be made from an unsatisfactory print.



If the print is only very lightly printed, and comes straight from

the printing frame, it is best to strengthen it by development (see

formula 17 _et seq._). If the print has been toned and fixed, etc.,

the following may be tried:--



26. Make a _saturated solution_ of mercury bichloride in cold water,

let it settle, and use only the quite clear supernatent liquid.

Immerse the print in this for 15 minutes, turning it from time to

time, and see that no air bells are clinging to either side. Wash

the print in running water for 15 minutes at least, and longer if

convenient. Then immerse it in a bath consisting of strong ammonia

one part, water ten or twelve parts. Again wash for five minutes

under the tap.



_Reducing P.O.P._--



  27. Hypo                 120 grains (120)

      Uranium nitrate        4   "

      Water                  2 ounces.



The advocates of this solution claim for it that it can be used

either _before_ or _after_ toning with equal facility and advantage.

Prints must be well washed both before and after its use in any

case.



Another method, which is somewhat risky except in expert hands, is

as follows:--



28. Dissolve metal iodine in alcohol to a rich dark port wine

colour. Dilute a small quantity with cold water until the whole is a

pale sherry colour. Now prepare a one in ten solution of potassium

cyanide (_N.B.: a powerful poison_) and add this a _little_ at a

time until the pale yellow colour of the iodine solution is just

discharged.



The print may be immersed in this until sufficiently reduced, or it

may be applied locally with cotton wool mop (as described above

under platinum toning formula 18). The print must of course be

quickly washed just before the desired degree of reduction has been

produced. This solution acts somewhat quickly when once the action

begins, and therefore it is well to deal with prints one at a time.





DEFECTS, ETC.



_Red-orange_ patches are usually due to touching the gelatine

surface with dirty fingers, etc. These places, being somewhat

greasy, repel the various fluids and cause uneven action of the

developing, toning, etc.



_Brown Stains_ are also often produced in the same way. They may

_sometimes_ be removed by the application of a saturated solution of

alum. If this fails one may try "chloride of lime" ("bleaching

powder") one part in twenty parts of hot water. Allow to stand until

cold and apply with cotton wool mop.



_Yellow Stains_ may sometimes be removed by a dilute solution of

potassium cyanide (poison) of strength one part cyanide in fifty

parts water. (Yellow stains usually indicate hypo splashes.)



_General Fog from Age._--This sometimes may be considerably reduced

by giving the prints the bath of: Soda sulphite (one in fifteen)

_before_ toning, but well washing after this bath and before toning.



_Very Slow Toning_ generally points to the fact that the toning bath

is too cold, or that it has been spoilt by a small quantity of hypo

or developer, or that it does not contain sufficient gold.



_Uneven Toning, i.e._, blue edges, generally points to a bath too

strong in gold, or that there are too many prints in the bath at

once, so that the edges are getting more of the metal than the

central parts, or it may arise from prints sticking together or to

the bottom of the dish.



_Blue-Grey Tones_ indicate too long a time in the toning bath, or a

bath too strong in gold.



_Red-Yellow Tones_ arise from just the opposite state of affairs.



_Pinking_ of the high-lights points to the bath being too weak or

becoming worked out.



_Double Toning_, _i.e._, the print shewing different colours, points

to insufficient washing or uneven action of the toning bath, _i.e._,

not keeping the prints moving, or too slow toning, or that the

toning bath does not suit the brand of paper.



_Blisters_ are usually due either to using a hypo fixing bath too

strong, or passing the print from one solution to another of a

markedly different temperature. Hence the importance of dissolving

the hypo either in tepid water or some time before use. The best

all-round temperature for working this process is between the limits

of 60 deg. and 65 deg. F.



_Tinting P.O.P._--The colours to be used may be the usual moist

water colours by some good maker, or solutions of aniline colours.

These latter may usually be dissolved in water and applied in thin

washes. The surface of the print should be rubbed as little as

possible. If water colours are to be used it will be found helpful

to prepare the surface of the print with one or other of the

following preparations.



  29. White (bleached) lac.      1 part

      Alcohol                   12--15 parts



Apply evenly and quickly with a spray diffuser or with a broad soft

brush, and let the print become _nearly_ dry before applying the

colours.



30. The white of an egg in twenty ounces of water. Shake well, then

add ammonia drop by drop until the mixture just very faintly smells

of it. Filter and brush over the surface of the print. In mixing the

water colours also use this albumen solution in place of water.



_Advantages of P.O.P._--As compared with ordinary albumenized silver

paper the P.O.P. class has the advantage of giving more detail with

marked transparency in the shadows. The operations are more flexible

and the results are as permanent, if not more so, than those on

albumen paper. The paper keeps in good condition for a longer time.

The negative giving the best results with P.O.P. is one having

delicacy rather than vigour, _i.e._, a long scale of gradation of

delicate steps is well rendered. Printing takes place quicker with

P.O.P. than with albumen papers. The cost of paper and materials is

much about the same in both instances.



_Notes._--In the glazed variety of paper the smooth shiny surface is

the sensitive one, and, of course, goes next the negative in the

printing frame. In the matt paper the sensitive side may generally

be known by its tendency to curl inward, _i.e._, the concave or

hollow side is the printing side.



Formalin may be used in place of alum for hardening the gelatine. Of

the usual 40 per cent. solution of formalin take one ounce and

dilute with ten or twelve ounces of water.



Dark spots or specks are frequently due to metallic dust either from

the fingers or in the water. Mounts having sham gold edges or bronze

powders should be banished from the dark-room. Dry "pyro" floating

in the air may also account for spots.



                                        _Rev. F. C. Lambert, M.A._



[Illustration: UNLOADING. A. M. MORRISON.]









_Platinotype Printing._





[Illustration]



Amongst the various printing processes in common use amongst

photographers, platinotype is unique in several respects.



Printing is conducted by daylight in precisely the same manner as

silver printing, but the action of light only suffices to make the

image partially visible. In this respect, platinotype stands, as it

were, midway between what are familiarly termed "print-out"

processes--that is, those in which the image is made completely

visible by daylight, and those in which the action of light is

latent or invisible, such as bromide paper and in the carbon

process.



The distinctive character of the platinotype print, with which,

probably, everyone is so familiar that a platinotype effect almost

amounts to a generic term, is not so much essential to the process,

but has been largely determined by the different kind of papers and

the preparation of those adopted by the manufacturers of platinotype

printing papers.



In the first place, the platinotype print is before anything a matt

surface print, and possesses a certain kind of texture or surface

which gives the finished print an appearance similar to a pencil

drawing or an engraving; an appearance largely assisted by the

characteristic colour of the platinum image, which is black.



The invention and production of platinotype paper is due to Mr.

Willis and the Platinotype Company, and although subsequently there

have been both English and foreign imitators, we may safely confine

our attention to those papers made and supplied by the Platinotype

Company.



As, however, the purpose of this article is to furnish the beginner

with simple working instructions, rather than to describe the

principles of the process, we will at once proceed to say how a

platinotype print is made.



To begin with, platinotype printing is divided into cold-bath

process and hot-bath process. Of the latter we shall speak later on,

but for the present, as being most suitable for the amateur and

beginner, we will consider the cold-bath method. The reason for this

division and the meaning of the name will be abundantly evident

presently.



We first of all procure a tin of paper of the quality marked AA. The

paper is put up in tin cylinders containing twenty-four pieces of

either 1/4-plate or 1/2-plate sizes, or less for larger sizes. It

may, if preferred, be obtained in full-size sheets 20 x 26 inches.



We have now to bear in mind that the paper is sensitive to daylight

to a slightly greater degree than are the silver print-out papers,

and hence, whilst handling the paper, placing it in the printing

frames, or what not, we need to be a little more careful as to how

near the window we bring the paper. At the side of the room furthest

from the window, or with an intervening screen between the paper and

the window, or yet again, with the blind drawn down, we shall be

quite safe in opening our tin of paper and inspecting it.



On removing the lid of the tin we find a false top or cover

hermetically sealing it, which has to be cut through in the manner

becoming customary with various tinned foods and comestibles.



We then find that the paper within is yellow on one side which is

the sensitive side. Within the roll of papers at the bottom of the

tin we shall find a hard irregular lump of some substance wrapped

round with cotton wool. Keep this in the tin and now note its use

from the following:--Platinotype paper is highly susceptible to

moisture and deteriorates under its influence. The air we breathe,

and therefore the air enclosed within the tin case or any other

vessel contains a large amount of moisture, and this moisture would

be taken up by the platinotype paper to its own detriment. The

presence of water or moisture in the atmosphere or in things we

handle, although quite unperceived by us, would be discoverable by

the platinum salts on the paper, which would thus become unfit for

use, hence the only way of preserving it is by placing in the tin

containing the paper some chemical which is even more susceptible to

moisture than platinotype paper. Such a body is calcium chloride,

and this it is which we find wrapped in cotton wool in each tin tube

of paper, or to speak more accurately it is asbestos prepared in a

solution of calcium chloride. So long as that little lump remains

dry and hard we may be quite sure that it has left no moisture in

the air around it for the platinotype paper, and it will go on

drinking it up until it becomes softened by saturation, when it must

be removed and a fresh piece substituted, or it may be restored to

its former condition by drying it on a red-hot shovel, the asbestos

remaining unconsumed.



Whilst perhaps in after practice we may find it possible to relax

our precautions against damp, yet at the outset the necessity of the

utmost caution being observed cannot be too strongly insisted upon.

Out of a very large number of prints representing the beginner's

first attempts at platinotype, by far the greatest number of

failures are due to damp, and this, probably, for want of conception

of the danger to which the paper is exposed. Remember then that

where there is ordinary air there is also abundant moisture, and as

no tin box with a movable lid is air-tight, neither is it

moisture-proof, but in the case of our tin of platinotype paper when

once opened will go on admitting moisture which the calcium chloride

will take up until it can take no more.



After having cut through the inner sealed top of the tin, close up

the little hole in the outer lid where the cutting point is with

sealing wax, next cover the mouth of the tube with a piece of waxed

paper or tinfoil, shut the lid down on to this, and then cover the

junction of the lid with a broad indiarubber band. In this way damp

may be prevented from gaining access to the inside of the tube to a

great extent.



Specially constructed tubes are made which close with an air-tight

stopper and have a false bottom with a perforated partition in which

the calcium chloride may be kept. Such a "calcium-tube," as it is

called, if not an absolute necessity, is a very desirable

acquisition.



If you now take the negative to be printed from and hold it near the

fire or a spirit lamp, it will on becoming warm give off

perceptible moisture, thus showing that it was distinctly damp

before. The negative, therefore, should be dried before being

brought into contact with the platinotype paper.



[Illustration: STREONSALCH. W.J. WARREN.]



The wood printing frame itself, if it has been used for printing in

the open air, should be placed in an oven or held near the fire to

thoroughly dry it.



Having placed the negative and the platinotype paper in the frame in

the ordinary manner, there should next be placed at the back of the

paper a thin sheet of waterproof cloth, vulcanized rubber of the

proper size and thickness being sold for the purpose; this will

prevent damp from penetrating to the paper from the back of the

frame. The frame may now be closed and placed in the light for

printing, and even having taken all these elaborate precautions

against damp it would not be advisable to print out of doors except

in dry weather, nor should the paper be left in the frame longer

than need be, but if it is not proposed to finish the print off at

once, it should be returned as soon as convenient to the security of

the calcium tube.





GENERAL OUTLINE OF THE PROCESS.



Platinotype paper is ordinarily only available for daylight

printing, though the Platinotype Company have introduced a lamp of

special construction and great power, by the use of which daylight

may be dispensed with, and electric light, should it be available,

may be used.



As has been already said, platinotype paper is rather more sensitive

to light than silver paper, and hence takes proportionately less

time to print.



The duration of the exposure to light constitutes the only real

difficulty in platinotype printing, and whilst just at first it may

result in the beginner's meeting with much disappointment, yet

probably, with a little care and watchfulness the trouble will be

surmounted, and sufficient experience gained to secure fairly

uniform success thereafter, before even the first tube of paper has

been used.



The printed image shows on the yellow ground of the sensitized side

as a faint grey, the darkest portions assuming an orange-grey tint,

whilst the lighter parts remain all but invisible.



A little practice will enable one to judge the right depth, that is

to say, how visible the image should be before printing is to be

stopped, but as a rough guide to commence with it may be said that

printing is complete when the image is about half as deep as we

should expect it to be if it were a "print-out" process.



As we shall have occasion to return to the question of printing

presently, we may now pass to the next step in the process.



In twenty-five ounces of hot water dissolve half a pound of best

neutral oxalate of potash, and keep this in a stoppered bottle as

stock solution. What is known as _neutral_ oxalate should be used,

and in order to ensure having a suitable salt it had better be

obtained from a recognised photographic chemist or dealer.



As the above solution becomes cool, a good deal of the oxalate will

probably settle at the bottom in the form of solid crystals; of

these no notice need be taken, for as long as there are undissolved

crystals at the bottom of the bottle we know we have a saturated

solution.



We shall now require a dish of porcelain or enamelled iron, and if

we choose the latter great care must be taken to see that the enamel

is not cracked or blistered, as it will have an injurious effect if

the oxalate of potash solution obtain access to the iron under the

enamel.



As it will be convenient to be able to alter the temperature of the

solution when in this dish at will, a spirit lamp or stove or a

small gas-stove will be a useful, if not an essential addition. Over

such heating apparatus the dish should be supported on an iron

tripod, or by any extemporized substitute.



If a porcelain dish be used, a thin sheet of iron should be placed

first on the tripod stand, and then three or four scraps of iron,

large common iron nails will serve very well, and on these the

porcelain dish is allowed to rest so that it does not come into

direct contact with the iron plate.



The purpose of this is to save the dish from cracking, moreover the

iron plate becomes hot, and retaining a good deal of heat serves as

a kind of accumulator which goes far to maintain the dish and the

contained solution at a uniform temperature for at least a short

time. Even better than this arrangement will be an iron dish filled

with clean dry sand, the porcelain dish to rest on the sand which

retains much heat.



If an enamelled iron dish be employed, these precautions are not so

necessary, though they may still be used with advantage.



Next we shall require another dish or similar vessel into which we

pour a weak solution of hydrochloric acid, the usual proportions

being:--



  Water                       70 parts

  Pure hydrochloric acid       1 part



This constitutes the whole of the very simple apparatus needed, and

we may now proceed to develop our print, which as already described

is exposed to light in a printing frame in the usual manner until

the image appears rather less than half-printed.





DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRINT.



If convenient it would be an advantage to have the above-mentioned

apparatus set up close to the window or other situation where the

printing is actually carried on in order that each print may be

developed and finished off forthwith,; the reason for this will, I

think, appear as we proceed.



Development--that is, the changing of the print from the partially

visible condition to its full degree of intensity--is practically

instantaneous. The image does not gradually attain its maximum

strength as in a negative or bromide print, but does so within a few

seconds of its coming into contact with the oxalate of potash

solution.



[Illustration: Fig. 1.]



Having put into the dish on the tripod stand sufficient of the

saturated solution of oxalate of potash to cover the bottom of the

dish to the depth of half an inch or an inch, we light the lamp or

stove and bring the solution up to a temperature of about 70 deg.

Fahrenheit. This may be tested with a thermometer or may very well

be guessed by touch; we merely require the solution quite warm, but

not so hot as to cause the slightest inconvenience if the fingers

are placed therein. This will be a sufficiently accurate guide as to

temperature.



In case any dust or scum should have accumulated on the surface of

the bath, wipe the surface of the solution with a piece of clean

paper, and now take the first print to be developed in both hands,

giving it a decided curl, or roll it round into a cylinder

_sensitive side out_, so that it naturally takes a curled-up form

(Fig. 1). We now take the print to the dish containing the oxalate

solution without previous washing and without exposing the paper to

the influence of light or moisture, and lowering the edge of the

paper held in the left hand, sensitive side downwards, until it

touches the fluid quickly and smoothly bring the rest of the print

down until the right-hand end finally reaches the solution, then

give it a sliding sort of shake in order to set free any bubbles of

air which may be imprisoned under the paper, and then on raising the

paper again after five to ten seconds, the image will be found to

have come out to the full degree of visibility, which the amount of

exposure had paved the way for.



The paper may be returned to the oxalate bath for a minute or two

longer if it be thought desirable, though only in the case of a very

cold bath is any effect produced on the print by the oxalate after

the first few seconds. The print is then passed _direct_ to the

hydrochloric acid bath, which should be ready in a dish close at

hand, and the print is now practically finished.



Before placing the print in the acid bath it may be noticed that the

portions of the print not affected by light still remain yellow, and

this yellowness the acid bath removes almost at once.



In order to effectually remove the yellow surface (which is the

unacted-upon sensitive salts and hence upon their removal the

permanence of the print depends) three successive applications of

the acid bath should be resorted to, the prints remaining for 5 to

10 minutes in each, and then finally washed in running water for a

quarter-of-an-hour, dried between blotting paper or in any other

manner preferred, and the platinotype print is finished and ready

for mounting.



It should be seen from the foregoing general outline of the process

that for directness, simplicity, and for the short time in which a

finished print may be produced that platinotype stands alone amongst

printing methods.



There are, however, some points needing careful consideration at

each stage of the print's production, and to these we may now pay

attention.





PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS AS REGARDS EXPOSURE.



As has already been stated right exposure constitutes the

crux of the whole process; this once mastered the rest of the

performance--development, clearing in acid and washing--is so simple

that the chance of failure is remote.



Hence the greater need of paying especial attention to the question

of exposure or printing.



Obviously, the duration of time of exposure cannot be fixed, not

even to the extent it can be in bromide printing or any other method

of printing with artificial light which may be a definite and

permanent quantity.



The variable quality of the daylight and the density of the negative

are both fluctuating factors in the calculation and hence some means

may advisedly be resorted to for acquiring a sort of exposure index

suitable for each individual negative and every variety of light.



First let it be noted that even with very great over-exposure the

image will not become wholly visible, whilst to the inexperienced

eye but little change takes place in the appearance of the printed

image after the correct exposure has been reached.



If then the print has been over-exposed, the fact is not made

evident until the print is subjected to the influence of the oxalate

developing bath.



To start platinotype work trusting to chance or good fortune to

secure for us good results, means that our whole course will be one

of uncertainty and filled with exasperating disappointments to say

nothing of the amount of paper and material which is certain to be

wasted in unsuccessful efforts.



The reader will probably have learned something of this from his

past experiences of negative exposure, the difficulties of which he

has by now, we may hope, overcome by careful and patient study, or

else if he is not even now undergoing this stage of learning he is

the victim of endless mistakes, every plate exposed is a shot in the

dark with no certainty attending any one of them.



Exposure, however, in platinotype is not so difficult a matter as

that of a dry plate, and the correct exposure with any particular

negative once ascertained, every subsequent print from the same

negative can, by simple mechanical means, be made with the certainty

of its being _an exact facsimile_ of the others.





PRINTING WITH AN ACTINOMETER.



Several kinds of Actinometers are made for sale, the purpose of

which is either to indicate the right exposure of a plate in the

camera or to tell the duration of exposure for papers such as

platinotype or carbon, the image on which is invisible, or nearly

so.



A simple, yet thoroughly efficient meter may be made as

follows:--Cut some fine tissue paper or _papier mineral_ into strips

about a quarter of an inch wide and attach one to a piece of clean

glass 4-1/4 x 3-1/4 with fresh starch or other colourless mountant.

Upon this first strip and exactly over it place a second, but bring

it to within a quarter of an inch of the end of the first, next

place a third strip in like manner a quarter of an inch short of the

second strip, and so on until some seven or eight strips have been

fixed. The combination will now be somewhat as the following drawing

(Fig. 2), thus forming a tissue band which at each quarter-inch is

one thickness more opaque.



[Illustration: Fig. 2.]



In the centre of each strip or increased thickness, paint with

opaque colour, black or red, a letter or figure as in (Fig. 3). On

the back or other side of the glass to which these strips are

attached, paint over or cover with opaque paper all except the space

covered by the strips. Now place the whole in an ordinary 1/4-plate

printing frame, with the paper strips inside, next adjust a piece of

silver paper, albumenized, or gelatine chloride precisely as though

printing from a negative. Close the back and we then have a

thoroughly efficient actinometer.



[Illustration: Fig. 3.]



We now put out our first piece of platinotype paper to print, and

alongside it so as to receive the exact same amount of light, we

place our actinometer.



The first print must admittedly be guess-work.



After an interval of time, which may vary from say fifteen minutes

to an hour according to the amount of light, we will withdraw the

frame containing the platinotype print, and _simultaneously turn the

actinometer over with its face down_, thus stopping its printing

whilst examining the platinotype.



Retiring from the light we examine the progress of printing

precisely as in silver printing, and we shall probably find that the

image on the negative is now faintly visible on the platinotype

paper, impressed in a sort of warm grey colour.



If the darkest portions are of about the tint which we might produce

by shading with an H pencil on a piece of primrose yellow or pale

buff paper, we may reckon that the print has been sufficiently

exposed.



Now refer to the actinometer and see what has taken place on the

silver paper which we put into it. Probably while the platinotype

paper has been reaching the required depth of printing, the silver

paper has also registered the image of the strips of paper, and has

become printed through up to the fourth or fifth step of the tissue

strips, showing on each strip its letter in white. Make a note of

the highest letter visible and proceed to develop the platinotype

print. If upon development the print is weak and grey, lacking depth

or intensity in the deepest shadows, and having blank and detailless

whites for the higher tones, we may reckon that our print is

under-exposed. The letter visible then, _with that particular

negative_ is not sufficient. We then shift the paper in the

actinometer so as to get a fresh portion under the tissue strips, or

we substitute a new piece. We refill the printing frame and print

again until the actinometer registers one, two, or three more steps

and letters, and then try again. If, however, in the first case the

platinotype print upon development gives a heavy dark print, with

the details in shadows blocked up, and the high-lights grey, the

whole possessing an overdone appearance, then in our second attempt

we shall stop printing when the actinometer records some one or two

letters less. But we may be more fortunate in our first attempt, and

the print may be about right. In that case we mark on that negative

in some way the tint or step or letter in the actinometer at which

we arrested action, and henceforth, no matter the time of year, hour

of the day, or latitude, that negative will give a similar print if

stopped in accordance with that memorandum which it bears.



If, however, we do not hit the right exposure the first time, we are

pretty certain to do so the second, or at the most the third time,

and having done so, we have not only an infallible guide for all

subsequent prints from that same negative, but we have also some

sort of index to base our calculations on for other negatives. Thus

if we at once proceed to print from another negative, that is,

before any considerable alteration takes place in the light, we may

by comparing the negatives at least estimate what will probably be

the second negative's printing letter or step on the actinometer.

Sooner or later every negative (especially those from which we

anticipate wanting subsequent prints) should bear either on the

negative itself, or else in a carefully kept register or note book

its correct printing letter.



Although this may seem a rather laborious practice, it is not so in

reality, and so great is its educational power that I anticipate

that after the first dozen or so negatives we shall almost dispense

with the actinometer altogether, having by then trained the eye to

tell when a print is finished merely by the appearance of the

half-visible image. Do not let this prospect, however, tempt the

beginner to dispense with this valuable help at first, for to the

inexperienced eye the appearance of the platinotype image is very

deceptive, and having under-exposed the first print, it will not be

safe to judge the extra printing of the next print only by the eye;

the beginner is nearly certain to err, and the eye must not be

trusted until it has had considerable training.



After having had some considerable and varied experience in

platinotype printing, one feels no little regret that an operation

which has become so simple cannot be laid before a beginner in a

more precise and definite manner, and I can only assure my reader

that in a very little while what may now look like a very serious

business, only surmountable by long and serious practice, will

become a sort of intuitive faculty, and just as one feels after a

little practice the precise amount of pressure which one should use

when the fingers are placed on the notes of the piano, so just the

right _visible_ depth of print required to give a developed print of

such and such intensity comes to be a matter of instinct.



It may here be stated that paper which has been affected by damp

gives a slightly less visible image than dry paper. But moisture

alone without oxalate will effect partial development, and if the

time of exposure to light be so greatly prolonged, that despite all

precautions moisture obtains access to the print during exposure,

this may, as it were, start a kind of local development whilst the

paper is still in the frame and printing, so that on looking at the

print to watch its progress some of the deeper shadows may have

sprung quite suddenly into a deep blackish-grey colour. In many

cases this will quite spoil the finished result, whilst in others no

harm seems to be done when the print is ultimately developed.



Remembering that the high-lights and indeed some of the lighter

tints of the print are quite invisible until after development,

care should be taken to look at the paper only in decidedly subdued

light, or better still, artificial light, because the injury which

is being done by even a short exposure to actinic light is not made

manifest until after development, and as most of us know how soon a

piece of silver paper will discolour in even moderately faint

daylight, we should be additionally cautious with platinotype paper

which is from twice to three times as sensitive to light.



[Illustration: Fig. 4.]





SOME POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED WITH REGARD TO DEVELOPMENT.



To avoid confusion it will be well to repeat here that at present we

are only considering the practice of what is known as the cold-bath

paper. This term is applied only in a comparative sense. The older

hot-bath process requires the developing bath to be raised to a

temperature of about 170 deg. F., whereas the best temperature for the

cold process is about 70 deg. F. or even less; nevertheless, the

cold-bath paper _may_ be developed in an oxalate bath of 170 deg. or

even hotter, so also it may be developed on a solution which is

quite cold. The result of altering the temperature is two-fold and

may be stated thus:--_The colder the bath_, the _colder_ the colour,

that is, the _bluer_ the greys and blacks, also development is

slower and takes longer, and the contrasts harder. _The hotter the

bath_ the warmer or browner the colour of the print; the more sudden

the development and the greater the amount of half-tone and

consequent softer contrasts.



With these maxims in mind some amount of control may be exercised

over the prints produced, especially as regards arresting

development at any point desired if a cold developer be used, but in

such case the print must be instantly removed to and plunged into

the acid bath, until which immersion development continues, even

after the print has been removed from the bath.



Development, as a general rule, should be conducted in feeble

daylight or artificial light.



Development need not take place immediately, but at some subsequent

time, provided the prints be meanwhile stored in a calcium tube and

in every way rigorously protected from damp.



The proportions which I have given for the oxalate of potash bath

represent the standard developer as given by the makers of the paper

for the hot-bath papers, and they recommend that this be diluted to

about half strength for cold-bath papers. Personally, I use it at

full strength for the cold process, and see no reason for diluting

it.



It may be said that such a course is calculated to give strong,

vigorous prints, for generally speaking, the stronger the bath, the

stronger the contrasts of the print. The difference, however,

produced by altering the strength of the bath is not very great.



There are two alternatives to the oxalate of potash developer, both

possessing certain, if not very strongly marked characteristics. The

first of these is known as the "D" salts. These are sold in tins by

the Platinotype Company, and consist of a loose admixture of certain

salts, and hence it is essential that the entire contents of a

half-pound tin be dissolved at once and kept thus as a stock

solution.



The proportions to be used are as follows: Dissolve 1/2 lb. of D

salts in 50 ozs. water, and then take equal portions of this

solution and water, in other words, dilute it to half-strength.



The "D" salts are said to give colder colours and more half-tone,

but the colour derived from development on the first-named oxalate

bath may be made colder by adding to 20 parts of developer 1 part of

a saturated solution of oxalic acid, in like manner slightly warmer

colour may be obtained if the oxalate bath be made alkaline by the

addition of carbonate of potash, but only just enough should be

added to turn a red litmus test paper blue.



If prints developed on D salts should appear mealy or granulated,

the bath should be strengthened or used at the full strength of the

stock solution (salts 1/2 lb. to water 50 oz.).



Another developer, the effect of which is to minimize half-tone and

increase the vigour of the contrasts, and so give very brilliant and

even hard blacks and whites, is as follows:



  Oxalate of potash         16 ozs.

  Phosphate of potash        4 ozs.

  Sulphate of potash         1/2 oz.

  Water                    120 ozs.



This should be made with hot water, and to get the full advantage of

its contrast-giving powers, used quite cold. Development will then

probably take one or two minutes, but can be arrested sooner when

the desired effect is attained.



It may now be as well to enumerate and describe the various kinds of

platinotype paper obtainable, and whilst the general treatment of

them all is the same as described in the foregoing, some special

recommendations may be made in each case.



The papers for the Cold-Bath process are two called respectively AA

and CC. AA is a smooth surface paper and is the kind usually

employed for portraiture and general small work. CC is a heavier,

stronger paper with a surface similar to stout cartridge or drawing

paper. For pictorial work and for landscapes, also for large

portraits or heads this paper is eminently suitable.



Next we have the papers for Hot-Bath process, to be presently

described. These are firstly A and C, both precisely the same in

character as the AA and CC just referred to, but intended to be

developed in a bath at high temperature. These four kinds of paper

all yield a picture of the normal platinotype black colour, the

black tending to cooler or warmer tints according to slight

modifications of treatment, but it is also possible to produce a

platinotype print of a rich sepia brown by using the papers S and

RS--these both in substance and character corresponding with AA or A

and CC or C respectively. Thus we have a thin smooth and a thick

rough paper for each Cold bath, Hot bath, and for Sepia printing.





DEVELOPMENT OF HOT-BATH AND SEPIA PAPERS.



With the Hot-Bath papers perhaps the precautions against damp should

be rather more stringent than for Cold-Bath papers, certainly they

may not be relaxed, and in the sepia papers, S and RS, there seems

to be even greater susceptibility still, but for this, printing and

development are performed precisely as already described, but the

temperature of the oxalate bath should not be less than 150 deg. to

170 deg., whilst in some cases it may be convenient to raise it still

higher. The oxalate solution should, moreover, always be at full

strength, namely, 1/2 lb. in 25 ozs. of water or thereabouts, a much

more diluted bath will result in granular prints.



As a general rule the colour of A and C prints is a rather browner

black than their cold-bath equivalents--AA and CC--with also rather

softer contrasts.



Development takes place in shorter time than with cold-bath papers,

and is indeed so instantaneous that any control is next to

impossible. On this account, rather more dexterity will be required

in development, that is to say, between the time that one end of the

print touches the developer and the rest of the print is brought

into contact with it, the shortest possible time should elapse.

There must be no hesitation, the whole surface must be brought down

gradually but swiftly, and accompanied by a sliding movement in

order to squeeze out or wipe out any air bubbles which might cling

to the surface of the paper. If this be not done evenly and

continuously, it is more than likely that there will be marks of

unequal development on the surface.



[Illustration: Fig. 5.]



It is no uncommon thing for the tyro to let the print hover over the

bath before giving it its plunge in the hot solution, but in so

doing it should be remembered that he is submitting it to the direct

action of the steam which the bath is giving off, and so exposing it

to damp.



Whilst with prints of 1/2-plate size and under it may be sufficient

to hold the print by one corner and wipe it across the surface of

the solution, pressing it down with the fingers of the other hand,

with larger sizes it will be well to cultivate a little trick in

manipulation, and the accompanying figure may perhaps be suggestive

(Fig. 5), in which it will be seen the left hand is bringing one

end of the print into contact with the bath, whilst the right hand

holds the opposite end above and well back, and the left hand will

next be moved in the direction of the arrow, drawing the print with

it along the surface of the bath, the right hand following but

simultaneously lowering the whole of the print--thus the solution

attacks the print smoothly and continuously, whilst the air is

pressed out in the opposite direction. Instantly the entire print is

floating on the bath it should be moved about a little, as a further

means of disengaging any air bubbles.



As far as possible, prevent the developer from flowing over the back

of the print, but this will be a far less evil than not bringing the

whole printed surface immediately and at one stroke on to the

developer. The print is next passed direct and without intermediate

washing into the hydrochloric acid bath, as already described.



The sepia papers, S and RS, are both hot-bath papers, and no special

instructions need to be given as regards development, except that to

get the full benefit of the sepia tint and secure a fine rich bright

colour, the Special Sepia Solution prepared and supplied by the

Platinotype Company should be employed in the developer.



Of this, one or two drams should be added to each ounce of oxalate

bath, either before heating it in the dish or afterwards and just

before floating the prints. In the latter case stir the whole so as

to get it equally mixed, and wipe the surface to remove any scum.



A good substitute for the bath as above prepared for sepia prints

may be made by adding one part of saturated solution of oxalic acid

to each ten parts of oxalate of potash solution.



The Sepia papers are rather more sensitive to light than the Black

papers, and hence all operations should be conducted in very subdued

daylight, a precaution even extending to the first acid bath.



The bath containing the special solution should be used for sepia

prints only, and when done with kept in a separate bottle for future

use, but the bottle must be kept from the light, and the sediment

which will fall should be left undisturbed at the bottom of the

bottle or filtered out, and the dish used for sepia development

should be well washed before using it for black prints.



Opinions seem to differ as to the wisdom of keeping old developing

baths, but as far as my own experience goes I use the oxalate

solution for black prints again and again, taking no heed of its

discoloured condition.



After developing, the bath is poured into the stock bottle, and so

long as undissolved crystals remain at the bottom of the bottle hot

water may be added from time to time to make up the loss occasioned

by spilling and waste, thus the stock solution is always a

combination of old and freshly-dissolved oxalate, and I have had one

large jar of solution thus in very frequent use for over twelve

months, a greenish-black encrustation gradually accumulating at the

bottom without detriment.





CONCERNING THE HYDROCHLORIC CLEARING OR FIXING BATH.



Little needs to be said as to the Hydrochloric Acid bath into which

the prints are passed immediately after development. The purpose of

the acid bath is to dissolve out the sensitive salts which have been

unaffected by light and which are still light-sensitive, the removal

of these making the paper white and clean. Thus the acid bath is

both fixing and clearing in its action.



Into the first acid bath the prints will carry a good deal of the

oxalate solution in which they have been developed, and it therefore

soon becomes very much discoloured, wherefore after a lapse of about

five minutes the print should be removed to a second acid bath of

the same strength as the first (pure hydrochloric acid 1 part, water

70 parts) and after five or ten minutes into a third.



After the prints (many may be done at the same time) have been in

the third acid for five minutes, the bath should be examined, and if

it is quite colourless, that is if the prints have not discoloured

it at all, we may rest satisfied that clearing and fixation are

complete, but if not, yet another acid bath should be given.



Whilst five or ten minutes in each acid bath is long enough,

probably no harm to the print itself, yet no good, will follow a

longer immersion. There may, however, be a danger of softening or

rotting the paper, a danger which is increased should the bath be

made stronger in acid.



If a number of prints are being made, or if numerous dishes for acid

constitute a difficulty or inconvenience, we may modify procedure as

follows:--



Make up the first acid bath to about half the prescribed strength,

say hydrochloric acid one part to water 120 to 140 parts. Into this

each print may be flung as soon as developed, until the entire batch

is thus far finished. In this weak acid bath the prints will take no

harm if left for several hours, when an acid bath (one to seventy)

of full strength having been prepared, the first weak solution may

be poured off and the fresh poured on. In this the prints should be

separately turned over, so that each receives thorough treatment,

when the second bath may be thrown away and a third substituted. One

dish thus serves for the whole series of acid baths.



If adopting this course, it will be safer not to mix sepia and

ordinary black prints in the same _first_ acid bath, after which,

however, they may be treated altogether.



Sufficient washing to rid the paper of acid is all that is required

to complete operations; but acid does not cling to the print as does

hypo, moreover, we have not an absorbent gelatine surface to deal

with, so that if prints were dealt with individually and washed by

hand, probably a few minutes sluicing under a tap would suffice, but

in a properly constructed print-washer, or even a large dish, twenty

minutes to half-an-hour should be ample. If any doubt is felt, the

last washing water may be tested with blue litmus paper.





MODIFICATIONS IN DEVELOPMENT.



To impart a warmer and richer tone to prints on CC (cold-bath)

paper, the following slight modification may be resorted to, but it

must be regarded merely as an exception for definite purposes, being

in violation of the instructions and rules already laid down. It

consists of developing CC paper as though it were hot-bath paper,

using a bath of about 170 deg. F and submitting it to the influence of

damp to a slight degree. This latter very heterodox course may be

effected by leaving the paper laid out all night in a room where

there has been no fire to dry the air, or by using paper which has

been kept for a week or so in its tube without calcium chloride and

without sealing the lid, or yet again, the print may be held over

the steam of the developer for a few minutes before developing it.



It must be remembered that in doing this we are taking liberties

with the process, and if poor, "muddy" prints result, we can only

blame ourselves, but as a rule this will not be the case, the effect

being rather to impart a slight creamy tone to the whites without

otherwise degrading their brilliance, whilst the use of a hot bath

gives the whole a distinctly brown-black image, which combined with

the cream tint of the high-lights has a very luminous and warm

effect.



Another method of development which must also be taken as an

exceptional one, only to be used in special cases to attain special

ends, is local development with a brush, using glycerine as a

medium.



As may have been seen from the foregoing descriptions, the

development of a platinotype print, even with a cold bath, is so

rapid that there is not a possibility of developing one portion more

than another, or if such could be done, still it would be done with

the certainty of leaving a mark where development had been stopped.

These difficulties, however, may be overcome by the use of

glycerine, the effect of which is to retard development to almost

any degree, and by its soft, viscid character to soften and blend

the line of demarcation where greater or less development ceased.

The method of applying it is as follows: On removing the print from

the frame it should be fastened to a board with pins, print side

upwards. Next pour on to the surface a small pool of _pure_

glycerine, and with the finger tip, a brush or soft pad, spread it

_evenly_ and thinly over the print. It must not be allowed to remain

on the surface in irregular patches of unequal depth, but after

spreading it had better be wiped with a fresh pad of cotton wool, so

as to remove any superfluous glycerine. Now have four small vessels

at hand, and into No. 1 place an ounce or two of the ordinary

oxalate developing solution, in No. 2 put equal parts of oxalate

solution and glycerine, in No. 3 one part oxalate solution and two

parts glycerine, and in No. 4 pure glycerine.



With a broad, soft hair brush apply the contents of No. 3 to the

less printed portions of the image and wait results. These portions

will presently begin to gain in depth and to slowly develop up, now

spread the No. 3 mixture to the rest of the print and apply the

contents of No. 2 to the portions first treated with No. 3. The most

obstinate parts may be touched with No. 1, plain oxalate solution,

whilst any spots which have come up too quickly may be promptly

arrested from further progress by the application of pure glycerine.



Here we have a method of developing up any one part, and restraining

or entirely stopping any other.



I do not think any good will be done by a more detailed description

of its working, even if there be anything more to tell. It is

essentially a method of development in which the individual worker

will invent modifications and dodges for himself, and when all is

said for it, it must be admitted only as a means of improving a

subject when ordinary procedure fails.





THE CHARACTER OF THE NEGATIVE FOR PLATINOTYPE.



In the earlier days of platinotype printing it was generally

insisted upon that the most suitable negatives were such as we

should describe as somewhat vigorous or "plucky." Whether it is that

some alteration has been made in the manufacture of the paper or

that taste as regards what constitutes a good print has changed, I

cannot say. Certain it is that in the experience of a good many, a

"plucky" negative is by no means essential to the production of a

good platinotype print.



The soft, delicate negatives, of which the best professional

portrait negatives are a good sample, yield the best possible

results, whilst with the CC paper, negatives so thin and delicate as

to be suitable for hardly any other printing process, give all that

can be wished for.



Much, of course, will depend on the kind of print desired and the

paper used, and here it may be remarked that from a given negative

the different kinds of platinotype paper give different results.



From a given negative the hot-bath papers yield the greatest amount

of half-tone, the hot development tending to yield flatter results.

Next comes the smooth, cold-bath paper, and finally as yielding the

maximum amount of vigour is the CC paper. Hence if we make our

negatives specially for our chosen printing process, a stronger

negative will be needed for S, RS, A and C than for the AA and CC,

whilst for the latter a negative distinctly erring on the side of

extreme thinness will be best.



If a negative gives prints which are too weak and flat for our

purpose, a great improvement may be effected by printing through

blue glass. If on the other hand the prints are too hard and harsh

in contrast, it is advisable to print through "signal" green glass.





TONING PLATINOTYPE PRINTS.



Several formula and methods have been published from time to time,

the object of which is to change the colour of the platinotype print

by subsequent staining or toning, and whilst by such methods

pleasing colours may sometimes be obtained, they possess an element

of uncertainty, and must not be too much relied upon. An exception

in this respect must, however, be made in the case of what is known

as Packham's method, the effect of which is to change the black

platinotype to a sepia brown, or a brown slightly tinged with green.

The necessary "tinctorial powder" must be obtained from Mr. Packham

or through a dealer. To prepare the bath a packet of this powder is

dissolved by boiling for three or four minutes in five fluid ounces

of water, to which when cold add one ounce methylated spirit. This

forms the stock solution and will keep for a long time if well

corked. For use add thirty or forty minims of the stock solution to

one pint of water, and in this steep the prints, turning them over

frequently. Toning may occupy several hours. To expedite matters,

the dilute solution should be made with water of 150 deg. F., and the

bath maintained at this temperature as in the case of hot-bath

development. As soon as the desired tint is secured, remove the

prints and wash well in three changes of cold water.



Prints may be so treated at any time after they have been made.



Glycerine developed prints are not suitable. Prints must have been

very thoroughly washed, so as to free them from every trace of acid,

also thoroughly fixed in acid if they are to be "toned" by Packham's

method. If after "toning" and washing the whites of the print appear

to have suffered, the prints should be placed for five or ten

minutes in the following bath, which should be kept at a temperature

of 180 deg. F.



  Castille soap             40 grains

  Bicarbonate of soda       80 grains

  Water, hot (180 deg. F.)       1 pint



This will clear the whites and intensify the colour generally.



Platinotypes may be toned to a red-brown by uranium nitrate, or to a

bluer colour with chloride of gold. They may also be intensified by

pyrogallic acid or hydroquinone, but as the purpose of this article

was merely to give simple working instructions for platinotype

printing for the beginner, he may defer the consideration of such

side issues until he has become _au fait_ in the production of a

good platinotype print.



                                        _A. Horsley Hinton._









_Contact Printing on Bromide Paper._





[Illustration]



It is well to bear in mind at the outset that bromide paper is

extremely sensitive to light, almost as much so as is a rapid dry

plate. For this reason, it is obvious that it must not be carelessly

exposed to actinic light. All manipulations except the actual

printing must be conducted by red or yellow light, such as is

allowed to pass through glass of these colours.



For evenness of result, it is better to use a lantern than daylight,

because the fluctuation in intensity of the latter is very

misleading and liable to lead to failures through over or under

development.



The actual colour of the light, also, is of far more importance than

one would suppose: ruby light tends to give one the impression that

development is complete long before that is the actual case; it is

also somewhat more difficult to handle the paper satisfactorily by

this light than by a good yellow.



For these and other reasons I strongly recommend the use of yellow

light, a thoroughly safe one being given by gas or lamplight passing

through one sheet of yellow glass and one thickness of "canary

medium."



This light, while being absolutely safe, gives such perfect

illumination that it is as easy to control and estimate results as

it would be by ordinary unfiltered gaslight.



If a ruby glazed lantern is already in use for negative work, it can

readily be prepared for bromide printing by merely removing the ruby

glass and substituting the yellow and canary medium. With these

brief hints as to illumination, let us consider the entire process

in its various stages.



_Unpacking the Paper._--The sensitive paper is generally packed in

envelopes sufficiently opaque to protect it from the admission of

light. The packet must be opened in the dark-room from which _all_

light (even stray streaks beneath the door) is excluded, excepting

only that given by the yellow glazed lantern. The outer envelope

being carefully undone, an inner cover will be found and these

wrappers should be placed on a dry table while a sheet of the paper

is removed.



It is a good plan to have a "light-tight" box (obtainable from any

dealer) in which to put the paper after unpacking it; this prevents

loss of time and awkwardness of handling in having to replace the

paper in its wrappers each time a piece is withdrawn for use.



When several prints from one or more negatives are required, it is

an excellent thing to have two of these boxes, one for the unexposed

paper and one in which to put the prints as made until all are ready

for development.



_The Class of Negative._--Bromide paper gives us a great command

over results; in fact, so vast is the control we may exercise that

it is possible to secure good results from almost all classes of

negatives, from mere ghosts to those with density almost equal to

that of a brick wall. But there is, of course, a class of negative

that gives a good result with the least expenditure of skill, such a

one is generally known as of average density, having a full scale of

gradation with high-lights dense, yet not so opaque as to prevent

you seeing a window clearly defined when looking towards it

_through_ the densest parts of the film, such as the sky, for

instance. Another way to test the density is to put the negative,

film side down, on some large print on white paper, the large

letters should be just visible through the sky, but the smaller

print should not be readable.



That is the class of negative usually considered in Instructions for

Use, as an "average" negative.



_The Sensitive Side of the Paper._--A difficulty sometimes occurs in

telling which is the sensitive side of the paper: this may be easily

ascertained by the appearance of the edge, which turns slightly

inwards _towards_ the sensitive side. This is quite apparent to the

sense of touch as well as sight. Some people moisten their finger

and thumb and squeeze the paper and see which sticks (the sensitive

side), but that is a dirty method and quite unnecessary.



_Printing from the Negative._--Having unpacked the paper, after

making sure that all but the yellow (or ruby) light has been

excluded from the room, we are ready to print.



For this purpose, different workers favour different classes of

light: one prefers gaslight, another swears by magnesium ribbon, and

some even prefer the light of day.



Personally, I favour ordinary gaslight passed through a No. 5 Bray's

burner, because it is quite rapid enough for all practical purposes

and is perfectly under control and free from serious variation.



[Illustration: Fig. 1.]



The burner should be within easy reach of the worktable and should

be fitted with a byepass to obviate the necessity of continually

striking matches. Several years ago I had my bromide printing rooms

fitted with an excellent lantern of this class in which the byepass

was connected to two jets (one inside and the other outside the

lantern) in such a way as to turn down the white light with the same

movement that raised the coloured light, and _vice versa_. By this

means no gas was wasted and the simple action of pulling or pushing

a lever operated either light at will. By placing the same lever

"amidships," both jets were lowered to the point of invisibility and

could so remain for days at a time, yet always ready at a moment's

notice. The accompanying sketch (fig. 1) will give some idea of its

construction.



If the dark-room is small, and space is an object, the sink may be

fitted with a wooden cover and this may be used as a table for

printing the paper, but care must be observed to avoid the slightest

moisture upon it or satisfactory work is impossible and the

negatives may be ruined. In a large room, it is much better to have

an ordinary kitchen table removed some distance from the sink; with

this and a comfortable chair bromide printing is a very pleasant

occupation. The following sketch (fig. 2) will explain the

arrangement of the table, and it applies equally well to the movable

top of the sink.



[Illustration: Fig. 2.]



Supposing that some arrangement of this sort is devised, we must

unpack some bromide paper and put it in its box and then put a

negative of "average" density in an ordinary printing frame. On the

film side of the negative we must now place a sheet of bromide paper

with its sensitive side in contact, replace the back of the frame

and it is ready for exposure. Before exposing it, _make sure that

both boxes are shut_ or their contents will be ruined the moment the

white light is turned up.



Upon reference to the instructions that accompany each packet of

bromide paper, you will observe a certain number of seconds'

exposure is advised at a certain distance from the light; in the

case of the Barnet extra rapid paper the time is given as about

four seconds at a distance of eighteen inches.



When all is ready for exposure, place the printing frame upright

opposite the lantern at the mark indicating eighteen inches (see

fig. 2), note the time on the seconds hand of the clock and throw

the lever over for white light for four seconds and then reverse it.

Remove the paper and if many are likely to be required from that

negative, it would be well to develop the first print in order to

judge as to the accuracy of the exposure. If over or under-exposed,

the time must be reduced or lengthened as required. When the best

time and distance has been ascertained for a certain negative, mark

it with a narrow strip of paper bearing full particulars for future

guidance, such as: "4 sec., 18 in., No. 5 Bray;" in this way

absolute correctness of future exposures is assured. Of course, if

gas is not obtainable, magnesium ribbon may be used instead. In this

case the negative would be marked "1 inch (or more) ribbon, 3 ft.

distant," as the case may be.



_Using Masks and Discs._--Prints are sometimes required with an oval

(or square) centre and white margins: this is effected by

interposing a black mask of the desired size and shape (obtainable

from all dealers) between the negative and the sensitive paper. The

black paper prevents the passage of light and leaves white margins

to the print. If grey margins are required, a disc (to fit the mask)

is attached to a sheet of glass the same size as the negative and

arranged so that registration is easily effected; the print is first

made with a mask and is then placed in contact with the disc and

plain glass (the negative being removed from the frame), and again

exposed for a second to the light. If a black border is required the

exposure of the margin must be extended three or four seconds.



_Vignetting._--To vignette bromide prints, the printing frame must

be covered with a piece of cardboard in which a small hole (about

1-1/2 inches by 1 inch for a cabinet head and bust) is pierced. The

hole _must_ be covered with a sheet of white tissue paper which will

diffuse the light and cause it to travel without harsh lines beneath

the opening, and make the print with perfectly gradated edges. It is

sometimes an advantage to move the negative while printing

vignettes; but it is not absolutely essential if the hole in the

cardboard is not too large and if the card is removed some little

distance from the negative. If the card is too close to the

negative, the gradation will be abrupt and the vignette will not

look well.



_Cloud Printing._--This requires some care in order to avoid

harshness and sharply defined lines. If the sky of the negative

prints white, the addition of clouds from another negative is not

difficult; but if it is at all thin, the entire sky must be

carefully painted out with a deeply opaque pigment in order to make

it quite dense and unprintable.



As a bromide print cannot be examined while in progress: that is,

cannot be seen at all before development, careful registration is

desirable in order to prevent printing the clouds across the

landscape instead of above it. To do this an opaque mask should be

made thus: Make a print from the negative on P.O.P. and, without

fixing or toning it, cut it carefully in two parts following the

horizon line as nearly as possible, then expose to light, until

quite black, that part representing the landscape. Attach this to

the glass side of the cloud negative (with the paper side of the

P.O.P. in contact) and see that the bottom edge and the right corner

of the paper and glass (viewed from the glass side of the negative)

exactly coincide. To make use of this arrangement, you first make a

print from the landscape negative, making sure that the negative and

paper are firmly pressed against the bottom and left-hand side of

the printing frame when looking towards the film side of the

negative; mark the registered corner with lead pencil thus =L= in

order to prevent mistakes in the second printing.



To print the clouds, you put the negative in the frame and press it

well home to the left-hand corner and the base of frame (looking at

the film side, of course), and then put the print in contact with

the same precaution and replace the back. Now take a piece of brown

paper with one edge roughly torn in shape of the horizon line of the

mask and cover the entire negative on the glass side. Hold the

covered frame in your hands at a distance of (say) four feet from

the gas and turn on the white light. Directly the light is up, draw

the paper slowly downwards until the horizon line is just passed,

and then _immediately_ begin to slowly push it upwards towards the

top of the sky. Do this steadily and slowly for (say) four to six

seconds, according to the density of the cloud negative. With a good

thin cloud, four seconds should be quite enough, but you can easily

settle this point on developing the first print.



_Printing from Dense Negatives._--Dense negatives require much

longer exposures than those of "average" (or ideal) density. This

may often be prolonged to twice or three times the normal exposure

at the same distance. A yellow coloured negative increases the

exposure greatly, as much as ten to thirty times the normal

frequently being requisite to get a decent print. An over dense

negative that gives very harsh prints by other printing processes

can be made to yield prints of exquisite softness on bromide paper

by giving a full exposure at a _short_ distance from the gas.



[Illustration: CUPBOARD LOVE. T. LEE SYMS.]



_Printing from Thin Negatives._--Thin negatives on the other hand,

require quite different treatment. In order to get plucky prints

from very thin negatives, useless in other processes, we must give a

very brief exposure at some distance from the gas; and here it may

be well to note that removing the negative to a greater distance

from the light is equal to decreasing the actual time of exposure

and has other advantages in connection with thin negatives with

which theory does not seem to agree. To print from a very thin

negative, then, instead of four seconds at eighteen inches, let us

cover it with a sheet of tissue paper and give it four seconds at a

distance of three or four feet and note the result on development.

If it appears to be over-exposed, we may reduce the time of exposure

to three seconds at the same distance and modify the developer, as

will be explained later on.



_Development of Prints._--All my remarks in this article apply

equally to most commercial brands of bromide paper; but it is only

fair to state that they are particularly intended for that made by

the firm of manufacturers publishing this book. Development, and so

on, is very similar with all makes of paper, but most of my recent

experiments have been made on the "Barnet" matt surface bromide.



I shall presently describe the use of several well-known developers,

but it must be well understood that, whatever formula is adopted, a

preliminary soaking of the print before development must be done.



When we are about to develop a number of prints we must first soak

them in plain cold water until quite flaccid, otherwise the

application of the developer would cause the dry print to cockle and

curl, and the development would not be regular. This rule applies

equally in the case of one print only as when a hundred are ready

for development; a prolonged soaking in plain water having no ill

effect.



_The Iron Developer._--This is one of the developers most frequently

recommended for bromide work, but personally I never advise its use

(especially by a novice) because the use of the acid clearing bath,

which is an essential part of the process, is so frequent a cause of

disaster and yellow prints. The Barnet formula is as follows:--



                     A.

  Potassium oxalate       1 lb.

  Potassium bromide       5 grains

  Hot water              48 ozs.



                     B.

  Iron sulphate           1 lb.

  Citric acid             4 drams.

  Hot water              32 ozs.



To six ounces of A, add one ounce of B; this order of mixing must be

observed or a dense precipitate of ferrous oxalate will be formed.



Place one of the soaked prints face (which may be distinguished by

its "slippery" surface) upwards in a clean porcelain dish and pour

the developer over it as evenly as possible. With this developer,

the image comes up very rapidly, so that it is not advisable to try

and develop more than one at a time. If the first print of a batch

appears to be over-exposed, that is, if it flashes out instantly and

the high-lights become rapidly clouded, add to each ounce of mixed

developer from 10 to 30 drops of a ten per cent. solution of

potassium bromide which will act as a restrainer, retard

development, and keep the high-lights clear while the shadows

acquire density. Under-exposed prints can rarely be made to give

passable results with ferrous oxalate. The addition of a trace of

hypo to the developer has been recommended for bringing up their

detail, but the result is far from good.



As soon as development is complete the prints must _not_ be put in

clean water, but must be transferred direct from the developer to

the following acid bath:--



  Acetic acid       1 dram

  Water            32 ounces



After an immersion of one minute, the operation must be twice

repeated in similar baths that have not been previously used; this

is to remove the iron from the print. A thorough washing must next

be given to remove the acid and the print may then be fixed for at

least fifteen minutes in



  Hypo              2 ounces

  Water            20 ounces



After fixing (no matter what developer has been used) the prints

must be thoroughly washed in several changes of water for at least

two hours.



The chief reasons against the use of ferrous oxalate are lack of

control over development and the necessary use of an acid bath.

Unless the acid bath is used, the prints will be yellow because of

the iron in them, and if the acid is not entirely removed before

fixing the prints will be yellow owing to the decomposition of the

hypo by the acid in the print which causes deposition of sulphur.



_Metol Developer._--With this, and the other developers I shall

mention, an acid bath is not necessary and so one cause of failure

(and extra work) is obviated. I have somewhat amended the Barnet

formula to meet the needs of workers on a small scale and have also

arranged A and B to balance each other without disturbing the

relative proportions of the ingredients.



               A.

  Metol                 120 grains

  Water (cold)           24 ounces



Dissolve _completely_ and then add



  Sodium sulphite         2-1/2 ounces

  Potassium bromide      15 grains



Shake until completely dissolved but do not apply heat.



                B.

  Potassium carbonate   350 grains

  Water                   8 ounces



For use, mix three parts by measure of A and one part of B.



With this developer and a normal exposure, the image should appear

in a few seconds and development should be complete in about two

minutes. As fast as the prints are developed they should be immersed

in



  Salt        2 ounces

  Water      20 ounces



to stop development. When all are developed, they must be rinsed for

a minute or two in clean water and then fixed. Over-exposure is

remedied by the addition of potassium bromide solution (as in the

case of ferrous oxalate); under-exposed prints should be developed

in a weak solution such as



  A          3 parts

  B          1 part

  Water      4 parts



Development will take longer, but the weaker solution will help to

bring up the detail without the harshness of the shadows that would

be the case if the normal developer was used.



_Hydroquinone and Eikonogen._--The advantage of combining eikonogen

with quinol lies in the fact that one provides what the other lacks,

the eikonogen tending to give detail without density and the quinol

(in inexperienced hands) giving density without detail. The

following formula will be found very satisfactory:--



                   A.

  Quinol                40 grains

  Eikonogen            120   "

  Sodium sulphite      480   "

  Citric acid           20   "

  Water to              20 ounces



Dissolve the sodium sulphite and citric acid in 15 ounces of water,

then add the other ingredients and enough water to make a total bulk

of 20 ounces.



                   B.

  Sodium carbonate       60 grains

  Sodium hydrate         30   "

  Potassium bromide       5   "

  Water to               20 ounces



For use, mix one part of A, one part of B and two parts of water.

The same remarks as to over and under-exposure apply as in the case

of metol.



_Toning Bromide Prints._--The "tone" or colour of the deposit

depends largely upon the accuracy of exposure and the developer

employed. Ferrous oxalate gives a rich black deposit, but to my mind

metol and the combined eiko-quinol give tones at least as beautiful

with pretty gray half-tones.



But some people prefer warmer colours, brown and red for instance,

and some get brownish blacks (through over-exposure and the use of

bromide) which they would like to change.



The colour of the deposit may be changed in various ways by treating

the print in baths of different metals. I will give a brief outline

of the methods employed, leaving readers to modify them to suit each

particular case.



_Black and Blue-black Tone._--Brownish black prints can be much

improved after fixing by immersion in a strong bath of gold

chloride; the following is the strength used by me:--



                    A.

  Ammonium sulphocyanide      20 grains

  Water                        1 ounce



                    B.

  Gold chloride      2 grains

  Water              1 ounce



When quite dissolved add B very gradually to A, shaking almost

continuously. The fixed print should be washed for at least fifteen

minutes before toning and should then be placed in a clean tray

while the toning bath is poured over it. The solution must be kept

moving and the print must be removed and washed directly the desired

tone is reached. Prolonged immersion will cause the print to acquire

a deep blue tone.



_Brown and Red Tones with Uranium._--Prints immersed in the uranium

toning bath gradually become warmer in tone, changing from black to

brown and brownish red until they assume a deep red nearly

approaching the well-known Bartollozzi chalk.



Prints to be toned by this process must be _thoroughly_ free from

hypo or stains will be the inevitable result. The toning bath should

be made up as follows, and it must be used at once as it will not

keep after mixing A and B:--



                    A.

  Potassium ferricyanide      20 grains

  Water                       20 ounces

  Glacial acetic acid          1 ounce



When quite dissolved add



                    B.

  Uranium nitrate      20 grains

  Water                 1 ounce



Immerse the print and keep the solution in motion until the desired

colour is produced, then wash the print for half an hour in several

changes of water acidulated (1 dram in 30 ounces) with acetic acid.

Weak, under-developed prints are much improved by this method of

toning.



At the end of half an hour, if the whites are at all yellow they may

be cleared by immersing the print for a minute or two in the

following bath:--



  Ammonium sulphocyanide      20 grains

  Water                       10 ounces



After immersion, rinse the print for five minutes and dry.



_Intensification._--It sometimes happens (especially when too little

light has been used to properly judge development) that one acquires

a collection of prints that, owing to under or over-development, are

useless; let us see how they may be rendered serviceable.



An under-developed print, though weakly looking and "washed out,"

simply needs intensification to give it the requisite pluck. The

foregoing uranium bath acts as an intensifier while conferring a

ruddy tone on the deposit. A black deposit can be obtained by

intensifying the well-washed print with mercury. The print must

first be immersed in a saturated solution of mercuric chloride until

the image disappears; it must then be again thoroughly washed to

remove all traces of free mercury and may then be redeveloped by

flowing over it an old ferrous-oxalate developer. If ferrous oxalate

is not at hand, an old metol developer may be substituted, but the

former is the more reliable.



When the image is sufficiently intense, the print must once more be

thoroughly washed. All the toning and intensifying operations may be

conducted by daylight.



_Reduction of Density._--Over dense prints can be made fit for many

purposes by means of a "reducer" capable of dissolving part of the

deposit. The best for the purpose and the one least liable to cause

stains is know as the Belitzski's; it is prepared thus:--



  Water                         60 ounces

  Potassium ferric oxalate       3   "

  Sodium sulphite                3   "



Dissolve and add to the red solution so obtained.



  Oxalic acid                    1 ounce



Shake until the solution turns green and then immediately pour off

the solution from any crystals remaining undissolved. To this

solution add



  Hyposulphite of soda          15 ounces



and shake until dissolved, when it is ready for use.



The print to be reduced need not be free from hypo, but should be

rinsed for a few minutes after fixing (or soaked until limp, if

previously dried) and may then be placed in a tray and flooded with

the reducer. The tray must be well rocked and the print, when

sufficiently reduced, must be removed without delay and rapidly

washed in running water.



_Some Cheap and Useful Trays._--If large-sized prints are made, the

cost of suitable trays becomes a very serious item. The expense of

these may be reduced to a mere nothing, without loss of

effectiveness, by the substitution of home-made ones. All that is

required to make a tray of any size is a thin wooden confectionery

box (or the bottom part of a larger case) lined with the shiny white

marbled oilcloth known as "American moleskin." This is fitted inside

the box (the corners being turned under) and secured by a row of

tacks around the top edge. No further lining or preparation is

required and the tray will stand all sorts of ill-treatment. As for

durability: I had three such trays made out of old herring-boxes

picked up at Calgary and lined with moleskin that had already seen

service as cover to a wash-handstand and chest of drawers in a

Canadian boardinghouse. For upwards of a year those trays were used

daily and travelled many hundreds of miles by mule and dog train, and

were not worn out when I returned home. My porcelain trays were

smashed by a fall from a refractory mule, but the rough and ready

makeshifts were a priceless boon.



It seems to me that by practising economy of this kind and in

various similar ways (_i.e._, where economy is necessary as,

unfortunately, it sometimes is) the cost of practising our pet

recreation is very materially reduced.



                                        _W. Ethelbert Henry, C.E._









_The Gum-Bichromate Process._





[Illustration]



Pictorial photography is answerable for the revival of this, one of

the almost forgotten methods of printing. Results unacceptable to

bygone requirements have been reintroduced with advantage, where

suggestive individuality and artistic effect have been desired.



The gum process has an unlimited range of possibilities, it would be

impossible to describe them all. The minutest details, or the

broadest diffusion together with the power of working from the

highest to the lowest keys of _chiaroscuro_ are values that can only

be realized when the infatuation consequent on successfully working

the process is experienced.



This method of printing, as with the so-called "carbon process," is

dependent upon the characteristic behaviour of the chromic salts

when in combination with organic substances, such as gelatine, gums

of various kinds, starch, etc.



When any of these mixtures are submitted to the action of actinic

light, they become more or less insoluble.



This property was partially discovered as far back as 1798, by

Vauquelin. Professor Sucrow, Mungo Ponton, Beauregard and others

advanced its application to photography up to about 1840, but it was

not until some ten years later that its great value as a

photographic agent was definitely established.



Hunt, Fox Talbot and Poitevin, each worked indefatigably to bring

the application of the chromic process to a successful issue; but to

Poitevin must be accredited the honour of being the original

inventor of the chromated pigment or carbon process. This brings us

up to about 1855.



None of these investigators appear to have been remarkably

successful, beyond having established definite, but valuable facts

of the changes produced.



This want of success may possibly be accounted for by the general

employment of gelatine and direct printing. It was not until Pouncey

and others, about 1859, employed gum as the colloid medium, that any

great advance was made.



About this time an important commission of inquiry decided that to

Pouncey, Gamier and Salmon, and Beauregard the honour of producing

permanent prints must be equally credited, and accordingly divided

the Duc de Luyue's prize between them, giving to Poitevin the credit

of the priority of invention.



Pouncey appears to have followed up the process with some

considerable success, as some of his existing examples are

excellent; it is much to be regretted that we have not more detailed

particulars of his methods of working; but he evidently was before

his time and met with but little encouragement.



To Alfred Maskell and M. Demachy must be accredited the revival of

this long neglected process, and during the last three years much

advancement has been made towards perfecting it.



Serious workers, both at home and abroad, are industriously

exhausting the possibilities of the process, and crude as some of

the earlier examples of this revival have been, improvements and

simplicity of working are giving us productions of every

description, of such excellent quality that it may soon be expected

to satisfy even the caustic criticism that has so persistently

opposed its re-introduction.



Dexterity in the various stages of practical manipulation is

necessary before skilful efficiency can be secured, and in order to

arrive at this, due consideration must be given to the selection of

the paper the colour most suitable to the subject and the effect

desired.



Almost any kind of paper will be found workable, if it be of fairly

good quality. Those that are thickly coated with soluble sizing

media are unsuitable, for although they may give clear whites they

sometimes produce harsh prints, the half-tones are also liable to be

lost in development unless very deeply printed. Several of the

continental kinds are well adapted to the process and work in an

excellent manner, giving soft and even results; of course, it will

be understood that for definition and fine detail the finer grained

descriptions are the best, but where diffusion is desired those of a

coarser texture may be advantageously used, they give a granulation

that tends materially to secure the peculiarities of gradation

characteristic of this process.



A few of the continental papers that will be found to work with ease

to the beginner, are as follows:--



Michallet paper is rather coarse, but takes the gum coating easily,

it has a series of lines running in both directions, which are

rather objectionable for some subjects; but it is an excellent paper

for first experiments.



Ingres, is also a paper of similar character, and can be worked with

equal facility. Lallane is another paper of the same class, but much

finer.



Allonge paper is entirely free from the markings peculiar to those

previously mentioned. This paper is best worked on the reverse side,

which can be distinguished by examining the name marked in one

corner.



Among the English papers the ordinary cartridge, Whatman's drawing

papers and many others are adaptable, but it must be borne in mind

that those with a toothed or grained surface are preferable.



There are two methods of working, and results of equal excellence

have been produced by either. Some of the most proficient workers of

the process adopt the easier one of coating the paper, without

previous preparation, with a mixture of gum, bichromate of potass

and pigment. Others adopt the precaution of first saturating the

paper with a strong solution of bichromate, and when dry coating it

with a mixture containing only gum and pigment.



Experience is in favour of the previous saturation of the paper,

this is recommended especially for beginners, as there are several

kinds of paper that will not work efficiently by the first method;

but when skill and practical knowledge of the special behaviour of

the materials employed is acquired, either method can be adopted.



We may presume that the advantage of the previous saturation of the

paper with the chromic salt is, that should there be any inequality

in its structural character, or should it be unequally sized, the

bichromate appears to act as a kind of resist to the penetration of

the pigment, thereby securing an increased range of tone and a

corresponding purity of the whites.



The process may be divided into the following operations:--



  Saturation or sensitizing of the paper.



  Preparation of the gum mucilage.



  Mixing and preparing the pigments.



  Coating the paper.



  Printing and exposure.



  Development.



For working by the previously chromated paper method, the

sensitizing solution is made up of one part of bichromate of

potassium dissolved in ten parts of water. This strength will not

keep at all temperatures. Should the salt crystallize out, it is

necessary to warm a portion of the solution and re-dissolve the

crystals. The solution may be used repeatedly, but it will be

necessary to filter it occasionally.



Before saturation it is convenient to cut the paper into the most

useful sizes--quarter sheets are handy. Having decided which is to

be the working side, mark the back distinctly. Into a dish of

sufficient depth pour in the one in ten bichromate solution to a

depth of about one inch, and immerse your paper sheet by sheet,

until you have in it all you intend to sensitize. As each sheet is

placed in the solution, remove air bells and turn it over and repeat

this precaution. The time necessary for immersion is of no

importance so that the saturation is absolute, about five minutes

being generally sufficient for the thickest of papers. By removing

the bottom sheet to the top and passing through the whole in this

manner, turning over each sheet and removing all air bells, even

saturation is secured. Each sheet is carefully and slowly removed

from the solution and dried in the dark. The paper is now very

sensitive to actinic light, which must during all future operations

be carefully guarded against.



After the paper is dry, it will--if kept so--be in good condition

for a long time.



To prepare the gum mucilage, take two ounces of Soudan or Turkey gum

and dissolve it in five fluid ounces of cold water, strain out the

floating impurities through fine muslin, and allow others, and finer

to subside. This mucilage will keep in good condition in a

well-corked bottle, for a considerable time. M. Demachy employs gum

mucilage of twice this density.



Pigments in powder are more suitable than in any other form, if in

cakes or paste. The medium in which they are prepared, does not work

kindly with the gum, and it is also difficult to accurately measure

quantities. No advantage is gained by using expensive colours, they

can all be purchased at a good colourman's, and at a small cost.



Lamp or any carbon, black, red ochre, yellow ochre, burnt sienna,

and raw sienna, all work well; there is some uncertainty with the

umbers and sepias. It will be found that much time will be saved if

a combination of these dry colours is made up in bulk, as for

instance--one hundred and seventy-five grains of vegetable black and

one hundred of burnt sienna, give a rich soft brown colour. These

must be finely and intimately mixed with each other, which is

conveniently accomplished by grinding with a small pestle and

mortar; after which the mixture may be kept in a wide-mouthed

bottle. Another advantage in thus keeping combinations of dry

colours in bulk, is the absolute certainty of repeating the actual

tint when required.



Various combinations of similar mixtures can be made. Of course it

will be understood that any or all of the above-named colours may be

used singly.



The grinding of the pigment with the mucilage is easily done on a

stone slab with a palette knife. Take half a fluid ounce of the two

in five gum mucilage, to which add the same quantity of water and

thoroughly mix. Weigh out fifteen grains of the mixed pigment and

place in a heap on the slab, add a few drops of the diluted

mucilage, grind and regrind the mixture until it is completely

smooth, then remove it to a cup, and clean the stone with another

portion of the reduced mucilage, finally adding the whole of the

ounce, intimately mix, and it is then ready for coating the paper.



For extra fine work on smooth paper, and in fact for all classes of

work, the fine grinding of the colours adds materially to extend the

range of gradation, and although the trituration may be carried out

fairly well with a palette knife, when the finest possible grades

are desired, recourse must be had to the muller and stone. Mullers

are obtainable of any artist's colourman, they are made in glass,

and a convenient size is about one inch in diameter.



The most convenient brush for applying the mixture of combined gum

and pigment to the paper, is of the description known as bear's

hair, these are usually set in tin; a flat one about two inches wide

is a useful size.



In order to coat the paper evenly, pin it down to a drawing board by

each corner with a double layer of blotting paper an inch or two

larger than the paper to be coated. The blotting paper will absorb

the excess of colour at the margins and enable you to secure an even

coating up to the extreme edge.



Take a fairly full brush of the mixture after thoroughly

incorporating the colour and spread it evenly over the paper,

crossing and recrossing it with the brush. Allow the mixture to lie

upon the paper for a second or two so that the paper may expand; now

release each of the corners and pin the paper down again. Upon the

next operation depends the evenness of the coating.



Take a four inch wide artist's badger's hair softener, hold it

vertically and lightly by two fingers and the thumb about an inch

and a half from the top of the handle, and pass it rapidly over the

whole surface of the paper as quickly and evenly as possible. The

motion producing the best effect is not the usual sweeping action,

but a series of sudden short jerks, difficult to describe but easily

acquired. Continue this softening down until the paper has an even

semi-transparent surface without uneven cloudy spots. Allow it to

dry spontaneously, but before it is stored for future use dry it

carefully by the fire, but avoid overheating.



Uncertainty of result is a defect often brought into argument against

this process; but absolute uniformity is not difficult if strictly

accurate quantities only are employed. With constant strength of

bichromate and gum, uniform weights and combination of pigment,

similarity of repeats are obtained: but these can only be secured when

each sheet of paper is coated identically with its fellow. To get this

evenness the badger hair softener must be washed out and dried after

coating each sheet. This is very quickly accomplished by an energetic

shaking and drying upon a smooth towel. If the paper has been coated

properly, it has an even semi-transparent surface slightly glassy.



Failures often occur from using an excess of pigment and allowing

the gum to become too thick in consequence of evaporation. Excess

of pigment gives dense heavy shadows and increases the difficulty of

printing; excess of gum gives clear high-lights, tending to hardness

and easy solubility endangering the half-tones.



The paper, if it has been correctly coated will work satisfactorily,

if on steeping a small piece of it downwards upon cold water, the

pigmented gum dissolves and drops from the surface leaving the paper

nearly clean. From ten to fifteen minutes should complete this test.



The method of working without previously chromatizing the paper is

as follows:--Take half a fluid ounce of four-in-ten gum mucilage and

add to it an equal quantity of saturated solution of bichromate of

potass; to this, with all care as to grinding and mixing, add the

pigment; coat the paper as before directed. This method will be

considerably slower in printing than that in which the paper had

been previously saturated with the bichromate; neither are the

whites as a rule quite so clear; but it will possess a peculiar

grain and softness not otherwise obtainable, which is much approved

by some workers of the process.



Exposure is so much dependent on circumstances that it is difficult

to give precise directions, being governed by the density of the

negative, the thickness of the coating and the intensity of the

light. Even and not too dense negatives are the more suitable, for

if the intermediate and high-lights are over dense the shadows are

considerably over printed before the lighter parts can be brought

out. Skill in development can do much to overcome these defects, but

they may be considerably modified by the judicious employment of

matt varnish, and by other methods of locally retarding printing.



The greatest assistance in obtaining uniformity in printing is the

employment of a reliable actinometer, Wynne's print meter is

probably the most useful for this purpose, with ordinary

gelatino-chloride paper as a register; from twelve to sixteen

numbers will be mostly sufficient for an ordinary negative, on not

too thickly coated paper. Another method of judging exposure is by

the appearance of the shadows; they may frequently be seen by

transmitted light, and when well out printing may be judged to be

correct, but this is a slovenly method and only approximately

correct at the best.



If the bichromate is used only in the pigmented gum, without

previous saturation of the paper, exposure must be much more

prolonged.



By no other process is it possible to obtain such diversity of

effect as by this; much will, however, depend on the skill which is

exercised in development. Should the printing exposure have been

fairly correct it is a simple procedure. The print is floated face

downward upon cold water contained in a deep dish; see that all

parts are equally acted upon by the water, and that no air bells

exist; if any, they may be easily removed by gently raising the

print and immersing it again once or twice. After it has been

soaking some five or ten minutes it may be examined; if all is going

well, and the exposure has been approximately correct, the pigmented

gum on the unexposed margins will have left the paper, and possibly

some of the high-lights and half-tones may be making an appearance,

if so, the treatment must be of a gentle character, and the print

may be safely left for some time longer in the same position face

downward; never allow it to lie either in or out of the water face

upwards for any long time, or unremovable stains will be developed.

Many prints will develop almost entirely without assistance, or

with only an occasional laving of water if allowed to lie in this

position for a long time. On the other hand some may, even when only

slightly over-printed, give no indication of development. When this

is the case remove the print from the water and place it face

upwards upon a thin, smooth board, fix it in position with one

drawing pin on the extreme margin, then gently lave cold water over

it; should some of the darker parts still resist this action, longer

soaking will be found advantageous. If there are still parts on

which the colour will not move, recourse must be had to the brush,

and for this purpose nothing is better than a large camel's hair

mop. Keeping the brush always full of water, touch where necessary

very softly; do not sweep it up or down, but just dab here and there

as may be required, constantly flowing over the surface a copious

supply of water.



If there are still parts in the shadows, or even in the high-lights

that will not move, a jet of water from an enema syringe or from the

household service pipe is very useful.



As a last resource a prolonged steeping in water of varying degrees

of temperature, even up to the boiling point, may be resorted to,

but the application of increased temperature requires judicious

management.



When the print is sufficiently developed, if the creamy yellowness

of the chromate stain is not desired, the print must be cleared or

bleached, either in a solution of alum, sulphite of soda, or

hyposulphite of soda, strength being immaterial with a careful

after-washing. If the print is only just sufficient or only slightly

over-printed, care must be taken that the clearing bath is not acid,

neither must the washing be too prolonged, but if the print is

first dried and submitted to light, this precaution is unnecessary.



Always allow the prints to dry spontaneously. It will not do to use

any kind of pressure or blotting paper, for the surface of the

colour is very tender and delicate.



                                        _Jas. Packham, F.R.P.S._









_An Introduction to Carbon Printing for Beginners._





[Illustration]



In the article that follows next will be found a complete exposition

of the carbon process, with its various adaptations from the

preparation of the paper and material forwards.



Whilst at the present time carbon printing is more largely used by

professional photographers, yet its simplicity, the absence of

chemical formulae and complications combined with the beauty of the

results, makes it eminently suitable for amateur workers, and hence

it has been thought desirable that as an introduction to the

subsequent article, a brief and simple outline of the process should

be given for the benefit of those who have not hitherto made its

acquaintance.



In the first place then let it be understood that in carbon printing

instead of depending on light to make a visible alteration of the

sensitive salts as in silver printing, we expose the prepared paper

or "tissue," as it is called, under a negative and secure a positive

in insoluble gelatine, the gelatine having combined with it a

pigment, and hence we get an image in pigment, not in platinum, or

silver, or gold, but in a simple pigment which may be of any colour.



If bichromate of potash is mixed with an organic substance such as

gelatine, that gelatine becomes insoluble after exposure to light,

and if that gelatine carries with it a pigment, then on becoming

insoluble it holds the pigment with it. If now, paper or other

material be coated with bichromate, gelatine, and pigment, and

exposed to light under a negative in the usual way, the thin

portions of the negative will admit of the light acting on this

coating and making it insoluble, whilst the parts which are

protected from light, as for instance the sky or white objects, will

remain unchanged and soluble, and on being washed in water will

dissolve away, leaving white paper, whilst the light-affected

portions which have become insoluble remain in proportion as the

light has penetrated the various densities of the negative. This

then is how we obtain our print.



For fuller explanation of the paper or "tissue" and its manufacture

the reader is referred to the next article.



The beginner will certainly first obtain his tissue ready made, and

he can purchase it ready sensitized or otherwise. The former will be

best at the outset, but it must be borne in mind that it should not

be kept longer than can be helped before use, and never more than

ten to fourteen days at the utmost. Various shades of blacks,

browns, and reds are the usual colours, also grey, green, and blue.

The tissue is rather more sensitive to light than silver paper, and

should therefore be opened and handled in subdued light. It must be

kept as dry as possible. A rather vigorous negative is best for

carbon printing, one not too strong in contrasts. Before placing the

negative in the frame, we must give it what is termed a "safe edge."

This is done by making a narrow border, say of about a quarter of an

inch or less, round the negative, either on the glass or film side,

with opaque black varnish, or it may be done by gumming on narrow

strips of paper, such as lantern-slide binders. If binders and not

black varnish are used, they must be applied to the glass side.



The Carbon printing paper which will hereinafter be called the

"tissue" will be found to present an unpromising appearance, and as

the coating is the full colour of the pigment in which the print is

eventually to appear, it follows that the progress of printing will

not be visible, and a mechanical means of gauging the exposure must

be resorted to. An actinometer, similar to that described in the

article on Platinotype, will do, and another and simpler form is

described in the next article.



Printing will occupy about one-third of the time occupied by

gelatino-chloride of silver paper.



Development is conducted in daylight, but not too close to a window.



The absence of chemical solutions has been suggested as an

advantage, in this process the developer being merely hot water.



It is not necessary to have this laid on, a can of hot water close

at hand and a kettle on the fire or gas stove not far off are all

that are required.



We shall require four or five dishes, one at least of which should

be a good deal larger than the size of the prints we are to develop

and several inches deep--a good-sized pie-dish or a basin will do.



Development merely consists of washing away the unaffected and

therefore soluble coating, but it must be remembered that the less

affected portions representing the half-tones have received their

modicum of light on the surface, and therefore the soluble part of

the film is underneath the part that has like a surface skin become

insoluble. This necessitates the printed film or tissue being

transferred to another paper or "support," so that we may develop or

wash away from the back.



In procuring your carbon tissue order at the same time a packet of

Single Transfer Paper, which is paper with a thin coating of hard

gelatine. Now to proceed. Place a piece of single transfer paper

into a dish of cold water, and in three or four minutes the coated

side will feel slimy, then place in the same dish a piece of the

printed tissue face upwards. This will probably curl up at first and

afterwards flatten out again. When this has happened or in a few

minutes after immersion bring the piece of single transfer paper and

the print together, film to film, so that they may be in contact,

and square one with the other. Now holding them by one edge,

withdraw them together by sliding them out of the dish on to a sheet

of thick glass, a large cutting glass serves well, or stout sheet of

zinc.



This should be supported in readiness at the rim of the dish.



Having the transfer paper and print now on the glass or zinc, hold

them firmly and with a rubber squeegee press them closely into

contact, squeezing as much water out as possible.



A better way perhaps is, if the dish is large enough, to place the

glass or zinc under the two papers whilst in the water and so raise

them out.



The squeegeeing must be done thoroughly, firmly, and all

over--several strokes being given in each direction.



Next lift the papers, now in firm contact and sticking together, and

place them between blotting paper on which is a heavy weight. The

next print may now be proceeded with and so on.



The print should be between blotting paper and under pressure for

about twenty minutes, after which it is removed to a dish of hot

water--almost as hot as the hands can comfortably bear, say 100 deg. to

120 deg. F.



After lying in this for a few moments the dark pigment will be seen

to be oozing out from between the two papers. When this has begun to

come pretty freely take one corner of the print and pull it away

from the transfer paper. It should come quite easily, and on being

peeled off entirely it is thrown away. We have now the transfer

paper bearing the printed film reversed, that is, the side which was

previously at the bottom and next the original paper support, is now

uppermost and can therefore be got at.



If we splash it or lave it with the hand, using the hot water, we

shall soon see what happens. The smudgy mass of pigment begins to

wash away and the picture gradually appears.



This constitutes development and we continue working it with hot

water until the whole is clear and bright, being careful not to

touch the film with fingers or anything but water, for being in a

very delicate and soft condition it would be certain to sustain

injury.



The hotter the water the greater its washing-off action, and hence

in cases of over-exposure very hot water may go far to recover the

print. When the desired result is secured, transfer the print to a

dish of cold water, this instantly tends to slightly harden the film

by cooling it, and after two or three minutes it is passed into a

dish of alum and water, which further hardens it and also "clears"

the print of any bichromate salts which may still remain. In the

alum bath the print should remain until any sign of yellow stain has

disappeared, when after a final rinse of a few minutes in cold water

to remove the alum, the print may be hung up to dry.



It will be seen that there is no prolonged washing as with those

processes in which hypo is employed, and the print is absolutely

permanent.



It must be remembered, however, that in the finished picture we are

looking at the back of the printed film as it received the light

impressions from the negative, and hence the image is reversed, that

is, the left is on the right and the right on the left. For

landscape and views this reversed position will probably be of no

importance, but if it is desired to have things right way round--in

portraits it will be essential--we must either work from reversed

negatives, or we must again transfer the film which will then

constitute a _double_ transfer. We shall now understand why

previously we called the paper to which the film was transferred

_single_ transfer.



Inasmuch as it will be seen that the print is not on paper, but

consists of a transferable film of pigmented gelatine, it will be

understood that the paper employed is merely a support to that film,

hence it is customary to speak of the paper as the support, whilst

moreover it maybe, and as often as not is ivory, glass, textile

fabrics, wood, or other substances.



If now we wish to again transfer the film so as to correct the

lateral reversal, we substitute for the single transfer paper a

"_temporary_ support."



The temporary support which is to receive the film merely whilst it

is being developed, and with the intention of its being subsequently

transferred again to a _final_ support, may be paper or many other

things.



Moreover, remembering that the film is mainly gelatine, it should be

clear that whatever the nature of the surface of the temporary

support, the soft glutinous film will take that surface just as we

may make the impression of a seal in sealing-wax.



The normal carbon print is shiny, due to the gelatine, and so, if as

a temporary support we were to use ground glass or matt "opal," the

carbon print film would receive the fine granulated surface and give

a matted print as a result. This merely by the way as suggesting an

additional advantage offered by the double transfer process as a

set-off against the slight extra trouble.



If double transfer is determined upon, and it is not intended to

experiment with ground glass, etc., then when purchasing the carbon

tissue, some _temporary_ support (sheets of paper coated with

gelatine and shellac) should be procured, also some pieces of

_final_ support.



Whatever the temporary support, it must receive an application of

waxing solution. This also may be bought, or can be made of:--



  Yellow resin      36 grains.

  Yellow wax        12   "

  Ether              2 ounces.



Melt the wax, add the resin, stir together and then add the ether.



Pour a little of this mixture on to the temporary support and spread

with a tuft of cotton wool, and rub over to make it even.



The final support for double transfer may be purchased, and is made

ready for use by soaking for ten minutes in alum.



The temporary support, after being waxed and the waxing solution

having become dry, is to take the place of the single transfer paper

in every respect, and the film developed as already described. When

it has reached the final washing, after the alum clearing bath, it

is brought into contact with the final support (which has been for

ten minutes in alum bath as just described) and is removed to the

glass or zinc plate and squeegeed.



It is now hung up to dry, and when quite dry the blade of a knife

should be inserted at one corner and the temporary support gently

pulled off.



Such is the carbon process, neither difficult nor lengthy, and with

this brief outline to form an introduction, the reader who is a tyro

will the better appreciate the fuller description which follows.



       *       *       *       *       *



Whilst the article that follows is more comprehensive than the

beginner may require at first, he is nevertheless advised to read it

carefully through, and some points which may not seem clear at first

will explain themselves after a very little experience.









_The Carbon Process._





[Illustration]



Before proceeding to practical details of working, it may be as well

to realize what a piece of carbon tissue is, and what takes place in

the process of exposing such tissue to light. Mr. J. W. Swan, who is

to be regarded as the inventor of carbon process as we now know it,

was justified in giving the name "tissue" to the film of pigmented

bichromatized gelatine, as at first it was a tissue unsupported by

paper backing and containing pigment practically, if not entirely,

carbon. The terms "carbon" and "tissue" have been generally accepted

as describing a pigmented paper containing permanent colour,

therefore little if any misunderstanding is caused by such general

description. The carbon process, like other kindred methods, is

based upon the well-known hardening action of light upon a

bichromate salt in combination with organic matter. When paper is

coated with a mixture of gelatine pigment and a bichromate salt,

dried under favourable conditions and exposed to light under a

negative it naturally follows that a positive image is produced. The

negative acting as a screen, prevents any undue hardening of such

portions of the picture as are intended to form the high-lights,

only slightly interfering with what are to be the middle tints, and

practically permitting full play in the shadows. The latent image is

imprinted on and into the film of tissue compound with the most

delicate portions on the surface, and means must therefore be

adopted to protect the surface during the washing away of all parts

of the film not intended or desired to form any part of the finished

picture.[7] In Swan's process this object was secured by cementing

the surface of the printed tissue to its temporary support with

rubber solution, but after J. R. Johnson discovered that the printed

tissue would adhere without any cement to any surface impervious to

air and water simply by atmospheric pressure, the same end was

gained by soaking the undeveloped print in water until about _half

saturated_, then bringing it into contact _under water_ with either

its temporary or permanent support, slightly squeegeeing or sponging

to remove as much water as possible without injury to the print; as

to _air_, _there ought not to be any present_ if care is taken to

exclude it before lifting from the water bath. The half-soaked

tissue after mounting absorbs every particle of water from between

the surfaces, and thus secures optical contact.



     [7] It is generally asserted by non-practical carbon printers

         that all portions of the film behind that which finally forms

         the print, are unacted upon by light. That is to say,

         unchanged and quite as soluble as if not printed at all. The

         upholders of such a theory should try the following

         experiment:--Take a piece of tissue, cut it through the

         centre, expose one piece, then mount both under precisely

         similar conditions and wash in the same warm water bath.

         Paying special attention to the backing papers, they will

         find the one unacted upon by light will have parted with its

         load of coloured material in much less time than the piece

         that formed the backing of the print.



The squeegee, handy tool as it is, ought to be used with great care,

in no case with any degree of force, or serious injury will result,

particularly to the finer kinds of work, such as double transfer

prints of all kinds, either on paper, ivory or opal. The rubber edge

of the squeegee should be free from notches, often caused by contact

with the sharp edges of glass plates. The notches can be removed by

rubbing on a sheet of glass paper placed on a plane surface.





TISSUE MAKING.



The tissue compound consists of a mixture of the following

ingredients:--Gelatine, sugar, pigment and water. The proportions

are of infinite variety according to season, the nature of the

pigment used, and the purpose for which the tissue is intended. For

convenience it is the rule for tissue makers to prepare what is

termed stock jelly by dissolving, by the aid of a water bath,

gelatine and sugar in water, in varying proportions--roughly

speaking:--



  Gelatine           2       parts.

  Water         4 to 7         "

  Sugar[8]      3/4 to 1-1/4   "



     [8] For some purposes (instead of sugar), glycerine, sugar of

         milk, or treacle may be substituted.



The pigments are made up into what are termed jelly colours, which

are ground either by hand on a slab of glass, marble or granite,

using a suitable muller for the purpose, or when large quantities

are required a paint mill driven by steam or other power is

employed. In hand grinding the colour is kept moist by syrup on

greatly reduced stock jelly. After grinding by hand the pigment is

lifted from the slab with a palette knife and stirred into melted

stock jelly. When the mill is used, the pigment is mixed with the

jelly before grinding. The proportion of pigment to jelly varies

enormously according to the nature of the pigment, and may be

anything between 2-1/2 per cent. and 25 per cent. Having prepared

stock jelly and jelly colours, and allowed both to set, they are

weighed out in proper proportions, the jelly being dissolved in a

tin vessel placed in a water bath. The colour, generally speaking,

is dissolved in a small proportion of the stock jelly placed in the

mill and again ground into the bulk of the jelly. In some cases the

pigment is dissolved in warm water and filtered through cotton wool,

fine felt or flannel. After adding powdered recrystallized

bichromate, the jelly compound is ready for coating or spreading on

the paper. The coating may be done by hand or machine. Several forms

of machine are in use, including the first form invented by Mr.

Swan. When only a small quantity is required, it is the general

practice to coat by hand.



In hand coating, the tissue compound may be strained through fine

muslin into a flat tin dish placed on a water bath; the surface

cleared of air bubbles by dragging over it a strip of stiff paper.

The sheet of paper to be coated is held in an upright position at

the further end of the dish with its bottom edge just touching the

surface of the solution, gently lowered until the whole surface of

the sheet is in contact with the solution. If the lowering is

properly done there will not be any default in contact, but if

allowed to rest on the solution a few moments, the presence of air

bubbles, if any, will be detected by the presence of little lumps on

the back of the paper, these may be removed by raising a corner

and touching the spots with a finger tip. The sheet is then raised

with a rather slow and steady motion, allowed to drip, then clipped

to a line by its top corners and left to dry in a warm dry room from

which white light has been excluded. When this method of coating is

adopted it is best to have the sheets of paper an inch longer than

the dish; the blank edge prevents contamination of the fingers and

distortion of the sheet caused by contraction in drying. Another

method of hand-coating is to roll the sheet into a tube shape,

placing the roll on the surface of the jelly compound one and a half

inches from the top of the free end, raising with rather slow and

steady motion as before. When the second method is chosen an oblong

and somewhat deep dish will be found better than the flat shape; the

flat dish may be used if tilted to give greater depth of solution in

a corner.



[Illustration: AT THE FOUNTAIN. J. W. WADE.]



In the manufacture of tissues the greatest care must be taken to

avoid over or long-continued heating of the gelatine solution.

Either a too high temperature or a lower temperature, long

continued, destroys the solution by rendering a considerable portion

of it soluble in cold water and to a great degree reducing its

gelatinous character.



The samples of gelatine used in tissue making are of two kinds,

although both of good quality they differ in solubility, in hot

weather a larger proportion of the "hard" sample is used, in cold

weather _vice versa_.





INSENSITIVE TISSUES.



All insensitive tissues are made with a single sample of hard

gelatine. They are stocked by dealers and must of necessity be fit

for use at any season of the year, to say nothing of those exported

to hot climates.





TRANSFER PAPERS.



Papers of many kinds are necessary for single transfer prints, the

tint of the paper must blend and harmonize with the tone of the

tissue or by contrasting help to produce a pleasing effect. For

prints of warm tones such as red chalk, terra cotta and the various

tints of sepia, a yellowish or cream-toned paper forms the most

harmonious basis; the various tints of black, blue, and purple look

best on a slightly bluish-tinted paper. For instance, a copy of an

old engraving in tissue, of the brown tone of the original would be

utterly spoilt by a blue-tinted basis. The above remarks apply only

in a limited degree to double transfer papers which in general use

are confined almost exclusively to portraiture. Such papers are

sometimes modified by tinting mauve, rose, opal, etc., etc. Such

tints are only in small demand and are in all cases confined to

papers coated with enamel preparations. The best and most durable

form of double transfer paper is that prepared on fine chemically

pure paper with colourless gelatine and made insoluble by the

smallest possible quantity of chrome alum, entirely without white or

tinted pigment of any kind. The best variety of double transfer

paper only differs from the finest form of single transfer paper in

having on its surface a rather thicker and softer coating of

colourless gelatine.



All transfer papers, either for single or double transfer, may be

coated in the same way as tissue, with the exception of those having

a very rough surface. All drawing papers and in fact all papers of

very rough surface are prepared by brushing over their surfaces

several coatings of a very thin solution of gelatine containing a

larger proportion of chrome alum or formalin than is used in making

ordinary single transfers. A flat camel-hair brush is best for this

form of coating, care must be taken to avoid air bubbles.





FLEXIBLE TEMPORARY SUPPORT.



Is paper coated with a gelatine solution in the first instance, and

after drying, again coated with an aqueous solution of shellac.





SENSITIZING THE TISSUE.



Pour the bichromate solution into a deep flat dish (porcelain,

ebonite, zinc, wood or tin) to the depth of half an inch to an inch;

place a sheet of tissue in it face upwards, remove air-bubbles with

a camel-hair brush or soft sponge, using as little pressure as may

be; turn the sheet and remove bubbles formed on the paper, turn the

sheet again face upwards, and passing brush or sponge gently over

the surface, keep it evenly wet until it is fairly limp; remove from

the solution, place face downwards on a perfectly clean glass or

zinc plate, squeegee to remove excess of solution, blot or wipe with

a soft cloth, remove any solution from the fingers, lift from the

plate, handle by edges only, clip to a line, small sizes by one

corner only, larger sheets by two corners, leaving a little

slackness between the two clips to allow for contraction in drying,

otherwise the sheet will be distorted and difficult to press into

contact with the negative.



The sensitizing _may_ be done in ordinary daylight. The drying

_must_ take place in a room from which actinic light is excluded,

and in a current of warm dry air, free from impurities, such as the

products of combustion from burning gas, or an escape of sewer gas,

etc., and at a temperature not higher than 120 deg. F. The drying should

be done as quickly as possible, otherwise the tissue's keeping

property will be greatly reduced, and in all probability a thin film

formed on the surface, of insoluble gelatine, known to printers as

"decomposed tint," degrading the high-lights, and, except in the

case of very "hard" negatives, spoiling the work.



It will be evident to anyone that the fancy forms of sensitizing

have been carefully avoided--floating on the back, floating on the

face, etc., etc. All the results desired can be obtained by

immersion. If a hard negative has to be dealt with, a stronger

solution, or longer soaking in the bichromate solution, is all that

is needed; for weak negatives _vice versa_.



_Note._--In the dry frosty air of winter, sensitized tissue will dry

without heat, and continue soluble for a considerable length of

time, often as long as a month, or even longer.



In hot weather it is recommended that the solution of recrystallized

bichromate be made immediately before using, as in dissolving the

crystals a considerable reduction of temperature is produced. Should

the temperature then be over 60 deg. F., ice must be used, not in the

solution, but roughly broken up and mixed with salt in an outer

vessel. If ice is placed in the bichromate bath allowance must be

made by keeping out part of the water. The ice should be encased in

several thicknesses of fine muslin to prevent the solid impurities

it generally contains getting into the solution. When recrystallized

bichromate is not procurable, a few drops of liquid ammonia added to

solution of crude bichromate is recommended. As bichromate is cheap,

a fresh solution should be made for each large batch of tissue.





PRINTING THE NEGATIVE.



Any negative that will yield a thoroughly good albumen print is

suitable for carbon work. The thinner negatives now made for P.O.P.

and similar processes are less satisfactory for direct prints in

carbon, for enlargements and reproductions such negatives can be

made to yield most satisfactory results by modifying the

transparency and the enlarged or reproduced negative. The latitude

in this direction is great. No matter how flat the original negative

may be, _if all the grades are present_ it can be manipulated in

such a way that the most brilliant result will be produced.





PREPARATION OF THE NEGATIVE FOR PRINTING.



The negative is prepared for printing as in all other processes by

removing all defects such as pinholes, streaks, etc. For the carbon

process the negative requires to be further provided with what is

termed a "_safe edge_;" this is a line of black varnish, from

one-eighth to half an inch in width according to the sizes of the

negatives, painted on its margin, either on the film or glass side.

In the case of original negatives masks of opaque paper are used

instead of the painted edge, the masks having openings cut in them

slightly less than the size of the negative. The purpose of the safe

edge is to secure a margin on which light has not acted, as such a

margin gives greater freedom to the operator in the process of

development by preventing the more deeply printed portions of the

picture leaving the support when the backing paper is removed.





DOUBLE TRANSFER PRINTING.



It may be explained in a few words why an ordinary (non-reversed)

negative must be printed by double transfer. In all other solar

processes when the print is removed from or taken off the face of

the negative, it is turned over to view, it therefore follows that

the details on the left side of the negative are found on the right

side of the positive print; with the carbon print no such turning

occurs, it is mounted upon its support in the same position as it

lay on the negative, developed in that position from the back and

leaving the position of objects the same as in the negative. In

some cases this reversal of the position of details is unimportant.



We will first consider the double transfer. In all double transfer

processes a temporary support must be provided. Such supports are of

two kinds, flexible and rigid. When a matt-surface print on paper is

required, finely grained opal glass is used. For the enamelled

surface patent plate, for intermediate or only slightly glazed

surface, a flexible support is used. Flexible support yields a

surface similar to an albumen print without special preparation.

When the higher glaze of the double-albumenized print is desired,

the printed tissue is coated with thin collodion before mounting on

the flexible support. Rigid supports, zinc or ground-glass plates,

have been used, but owing to the difficulty of seeing the details

during development their use is practically discontinued. Flexible

temporary support is always used in transferring to canvas, wood

panel, opal, ivory, etc., etc. In the case of canvas, the double

transfer process has two great advantages. First, staining is

avoided, the bichromate has been thoroughly got rid of in the

process of development. Secondly, the canvas is prepared to receive

the print by a substratum that allows the carbon image to expand and

contract with the expansion or contraction of the canvas and not in

opposition to it. There are also two advantages in adopting the

double transfer process for the production of pictures on ivory. The

first, is freedom from bichromate stains. Secondly, the ivory is not

distorted by washing in hot water, such distortion generally takes

place when the single transfer process is adopted. Wood panels are

prepared in a similar way to canvas. Stains are avoided, and as

there is not the expansion and contraction of canvas to provide

against, the substratum is modified in composition and greatly

reduced. The stains above alluded to are caused by the chemical

combination of bichromate with the lead of the paint, forming

chromate of lead or chrome yellow. In the case of opal, opaque

celluloid, and similar substances, no staining takes place, the

double transfer is only required to restore the image to its proper

position.





SINGLE TRANSFER.



The single transfer process is practically the only method in use

when large sizes or large numbers of prints are required. For large

sizes the negatives are reversed in the process of enlargement. For

small sizes one or more reproduced reversed negatives are made,

either in the camera from a carbon transparency, or by contact

printing from a carbon transparency on a dry plate. With reasonable

care, little if any loss of quality occurs in reproduction. As the

single transfer process is the most simple form of carbon printing,

it is generally recommended to beginners. Probably the most simple

form of all is single transfer on opal. The opal plate does not

require any preparation beyond cleaning. Neither soap nor grease of

any kind must be permitted to contaminate the surface, otherwise the

print will fail to adhere. Opal plates are cleaned by scrubbing with

fine graining sand and water, and a muller or a small plate, either

of ordinary or opal glass, placed upon the wetted sand and moved

over the surface with a circular motion until soiled or discoloured

markings are ground off.





THE ACTINOMETER.



An actinometer must be used to gauge the amount of exposure, as only

a faint image, and in some tissues none at all, is visible during or

after exposure. The simplest form of instrument is the best. That in

general use is known as Johnson's Actinometer, a square tin box

containing a long strip of sensitive albumen paper, and provided

with a glass lid painted to the colour of printed albumen paper, an

opening in the paint in the form of a slit three-sixteenths of an

inch in width, from which the paint has been removed. The strip of

sensitive paper is made to pass between the top of an inner lid and

the painted side of the glass lid underneath the clear slit with the

end of the strip protruding at one side of the box. On exposure to

light the sensitive silver paper gradually discolours until it

closely resembles the colour of the paint, that is called one tint;

the tint is changed by pulling the slip forward just the width of

the slit, and so on until the requisite number of tints have been

printed for the strongest or densest negative in the batch exposed,

those negatives requiring less exposure are turned down or removed

when the requisite number of tints are registered in each case.





EXPOSURE.



For double transfer from opal the materials required are opal

plates, sensitive tissue, French chalk, collodion, double transfer

paper, pressure frame, flat camel-hair brush, chamois leather.

Before placing the negative in pressure frame, carefully clean from

both sides all finger marks, etc., with the leather, place negative

in frame on a paper mask, or provided with a safe edge. After

exposure to light, remove from frame and develop on plate prepared

as follows:--Rub the whole surface with French chalk on a pad of

muslin, afterwards removing loose particles by gentle brushing. Coat

with collodion made as follows:--Enamel collodion, 1 part; ether, 1

part; alcohol, 1 part. Filter and coat by pouring a pool on centre

of the plate, and, by tilting it, force the collodion to flow into

the top right corner, then to the left, then to bottom left, and

finally drain off at bottom right corner, rocking the plate the

while. The collodion must be allowed to set until it will bear the

gentle pressure of a finger in its thickest part, but must not be

permitted to dry in any part before plunging into clean cold water

to remove the solvents by washing. The time required in washing is

variable according to time of year. When the collodion ceases to

repel water it is ready to receive the printed tissue. Soak the

tissue for the requisite time, but not so long as to become quite

saturated, bring it into contact with collodionized side of plate,

remove to squeegeeing board, place over it a piece of wet rubber

cloth, or a piece of wet thick single transfer paper, coated side

up, to prevent injury to exposed margin of collodion and to

facilitate the smooth passage of squeegee over the surface in

removing excess of water. If, on removing the covering from the

plate, the back of tissue is found to be unevenly wet, blot or place

plate in a rack to drain; in a few minutes develop in warm water,

temperature 90 deg. to 100 deg. F. Be careful to remove the backing paper

_under water_, _and as soon as possible after immersion_ in the warm

bath. Finish development by laving or pouring warm water over the

print from jug or other vessel, until all details are brought out.

When washing is finished the print should look rather light, as in

drying a decided increase in strength is obtained; rinse _slightly_

in alum solution to stop bleeding only, place in clean cold water to

wash out any remains of bichromate, thoroughly rinse by dashing

water upon the print to remove any particles of solid matter that

may have stuck to its surface; place in a rack to dry, and transfer

as soon after drying as possible. The transfer paper is cut a trifle

larger than the net size of the print, but less than the opal

support; it is soaked in warm water until the surface is slimy to

the touch, but not soft enough to break under pressure between

finger and thumb. The softened transfer paper is placed in clean

cold water into which the dry print is plunged, water dashed upon

its surface to remove air; the two surfaces are brought into contact

under water, and squeegeed into contact as in first mounting before

development. When thoroughly dry, the print may be removed from the

opal plate by inserting the point of a knife at the edge.



Double transfer prints with enamelled surface are produced precisely

as above, only substituting patent plate for ground opal, and by

adding a second thickness of paper to the back of the finished print

before removal from its temporary support.





DOUBLE TRANSFER FROM FLEXIBLE SUPPORT.



The flexible temporary support is prepared by waxing. The waxing

solutions are:--



                    No. 1.

  Benzol                                   1 oz.

  Pure beeswax (natural not bleached)      3 grs.



                    No. 2.

  Turpentine                               1 oz.

  Yellow resin                            10 grs.



After dissolving, mix the two solutions, pour a little of the

mixture on fine flannel, rub it over so as to evenly moisten the

surface of the flexible support, wipe off with a second flannel

using only slight pressure but rubbing briskly and with circular

_motion_. When finished, the waxed surface should be perfectly even

and quite free from streaks or other markings. The waxing should be

done some considerable time before the support is required for use,

and exposed to the free action of air to remove all trace of the

solvents.





PAPER PRINTS WITH ORDINARY OR SLIGHTLY GLAZED SURFACE.



After removal from the pressure frame, the tissue is plunged into

cold water with a piece of support slightly larger. After soaking

the necessary time, the prepared surfaces are brought into contact

under water, removed from the bath and placed upon any even plane

surface, such as zinc, glass, etc., squeegeed into contact, blotted

or otherwise treated to remove uneven dampness, and developed in

warm water as in double transfer from rigid support, then slightly

rinsed in alum solution and washed in clean cold water until all

traces of bichromate are removed. After the transferring is done as

before described, only the print on flexible support must be soaked

in water until quite flat before bringing into contact with its

final support.





PAPER PRINTS WITH HIGHLY GLAZED SURFACE.



The printed tissue after removal from the pressure frame is coated

with collodion, for this coating allowance must be made in printing.

A considerable reduction in temperature takes place and any moisture

present in the air is condensed on the tissue, bringing into action

the well-known effect of continued moisture, _i.e._, considerably

increasing the depth of the print. Great care must be taken to coat

evenly and to prevent the collodion running in streaks on the back

of the print. When such streaks or unevenness of any kind are

present, a corresponding dark line or lines will be found on the

face of the finished print. Transfer same as for prints with

ordinary surface. All prints from flexible support on paper with a

highly glazed surface as well as those intended for transfer to

ivory or opal are coated with thin collodion:--



  Enamel collodion      2 parts

  Ether                 4   "

  Alcohol               4   "





DOUBLE TRANSFER TO OPAL AND IVORY.



After development the print is allowed to dry, and as soon after

drying as possible it is transferred to its final support, whether

opal or ivory, by a solution of gelatine composed of the following

ingredients:--



  Gelatine (fairly hard)                1-1/2 ozs.

  Water                                20      "

  Chrome alum solution (30 grs.)        2      "



Soak the gelatine in the water until quite limp, dissolve by heat,

then add the 30 grain chrome alum solution; roughly filter through

two or more thicknesses of fine muslin into a flat dish on a water

bath. After cutting the print to a size a trifle less than opal or

ivory, place both print and final support in gelatine solution,

allow print to stretch until quite flat, then bring them into

contact under solution, squeegee and place on edge to dry. When

quite dry, remove temporary support by inserting the point of a

knife between the surfaces at the edge, wash with benzol or ether to

remove all traces of the waxing solution. The print is now ready for

the artist.





DOUBLE TRANSFER PRINTS ON CANVAS.



For double transfer prints on canvas, as a basis for oil painting,

there is not at the present moment a large demand. A strong

prejudice exists, and deservedly so, against such prints, for the

following reasons. Some thirty years ago, in the principal

establishment in which carbon work was done, a process of printing

on canvas was in vogue. It was roughly this:--A stretched artist's

canvas without other preparation was coated with dammar varnish;

after drying, the canvas was used in pretty much the same way as

single transfer paper is now--that is to say, a piece of printed

tissue was squeegeed into contact with its surface, developed by

floating on hot water, and practically in that crude condition

placed in the hands of artists for oil-colour painting or finishing

as it is sometimes prudently called. The natural result

followed--_viz._, in a dry warm room the canvas stretched, the film

of unmodified gelatine contracted; hence cracks, peeling, etc.,

until the work, valuable or otherwise, was utterly ruined. The

method of preparing the canvas for the reception of the carbon image

introduced by the writer is based upon opposite principles, as

mentioned in the preceding general remarks, and may be described as

follows:--A yielding and elastic substratum of gelatine forms a

crust, so to speak, that expands and contracts according to the

corresponding behaviour of the canvas support.



Ordinary painted canvas, such as is used by artists, or strong linen

may be used with special treatment.





PREPARATION OF PAINTED CANVAS.



The canvas is first stretched tightly on a drawing board, same size

as picture required, the greater part of paint removed by scrubbing

with soda solution (either nail brush, sponge or a piece of flannel

will answer the purpose) until the surface of the fabric is exposed

and little of the paint remains beyond the priming. After drying,

the canvas is coated with the following solution, applied with a

flat camel-hair brush. Several coats (three in cold, four in warm

weather) are given, drying between each and rubbing with fine sand

paper if at all uneven.



                   Coating Solution.

  Cooking gelatine (Cox's soup answers perfectly)       4 oz.

  Sugar                                                 2  "

  Glycerine                                             2  "

  Water                                                30  "

  30 grain chrome alum solution                         1  "



The print is exposed in the ordinary manner, developed on temporary

support, allowed to dry and transferred to the canvas as

follows:--The canvas is placed face upwards, on a level surface by

preference, on a broad board over a large tank. The dry print is

placed face upwards in a flat dish, the warm coating solution poured

over it, air bells removed with the brush, the surface of the canvas

brushed over with the solution. The bulk of the solution is then

poured on the canvas and before it has had time to run off the print

is lowered carefully and quickly upon it and squeegeed to remove

excess of solution. After thorough drying, the temporary support is

removed, the surface of the print cleaned with benzol or ether or a

mixture of both to remove every trace of the waxing compound, and

mounted on a stretcher in the usual manner. A print on canvas

prepared as above, is perfectly reliable, it will neither crack nor

peel, and can be used with perfect confidence as a basis for the

most costly form of artistic finishing, as the carbon image rests

upon an elastic substratum in actual contact with the fibrous

substance of the canvas.





TO PREPARE ORDINARY STRONG LINEN OR CALICO.



Proceed precisely as for painted canvas (of course without

scrubbing), using the same coating solution with half-a-pound white

pigment added, sulphate of baryta answers perfectly. Sand or glass

paper must be used pretty freely as the surface of the unpainted

fabric washes up roughly when the gelatine coatings are applied.





WOOD PANELS.



Wood panels are prepared by removing the surface of the paint only

with soda solution. After drying, a tooth is given by rubbing with

fine sand paper and coating with solution as under:--



  Gelatine (Cox's soup)                3 oz.

  Sugar                                1  "

  Glycerine                          1/2  "

  Water                               30  "

  30 grain chrome alum solution      3/4  "



_Note._--Before transferring to either kinds of canvas or wood panel

in cold weather, it is absolutely necessary to thoroughly warm the

final support, otherwise the gelatine solution will gelatinize

before the excess can be removed from between the surfaces.





THE SINGLE TRANSFER PROCESS.



The single transfer process may be briefly described as

follows:--The sensitive tissue is exposed under a negative and the

exposure gauged by actinometer as for double transfer printing.

After removal from the pressure frame the printed tissue is plunged

into clean cold water along with a piece of transfer paper of any

desired surface or quality, cut a little larger than the tissue (to

provide a margin by which the picture may be handled without injury

during development). After soaking the requisite time, the two

prepared surfaces are brought into contact under the water, removed

to a squeegeeing board, plate of glass or zinc, and squeegeed into

contact; care must be taken to use only as much pressure as is

needed to remove the superfluous water from between the surfaces. A

sponge may be used instead of a squeegee, or both may be dispensed

with, if care is taken to remove every trace of air from surfaces

before lifting from the cold water bath. When neither squeegee or

substitute for it is used, the print must be handled with greater

care, as undue bending before atmospheric pressure comes into

operation would destroy contact. The print is hung up to drain, and

more time allowed between mounting and development. Development is

the same as in double transfer, with one or two rather important

exceptions. 1st. The single transfer print is developed upon the

material on which it is to remain. 2nd. There is no preparation of

the supports, neither in the case of paper or opal. 3rd. The

developed print can be soaked for a considerable time in a saturated

solution of alum without injury, the alum solution greatly assisting

in removing bichromate.





CARBON TRANSPARENCIES.



Carbon transparencies, either for projection, enlargement, or

reproduction, are printed in a special tissue known as transparency

tissue, and developed on glass plates prepared with a thin coating

of fine hard gelatine. The coating solution is composed as

follows:--



  Gelatine                3/4 oz.

  Water                  40    "

  Bichromate potash       1 dram.



The glass plates are carefully selected, free from bells, scratches,

and other defects; thoroughly cleaned, either by acid or rubbing

with plate powder to remove every trace of grease, and then coated

with the gelatine solution, and placed in a rack to dry; when dry,

exposed to light to render the film somewhat insoluble. It is not

desirable to print until the film is absolutely hardened throughout.

The print adheres firmly to the plate when the substratum is not

over-printed.



A positive intended for projection should show clear glass in the

highest lights without undue density in the shadows, all details

plainly seen--in a word, quite transparent.



Positives intended for enlargement must be fully exposed--that is to

say, every detail on the highest lights brought out, but no more;

beyond that point there is nothing to be gained. Over-printing in

the transparency tends to bury detail in the shadows of the enlarged

negative, and to blend the highest grades in the high-lights,

reducing the roundness or modelling of the picture.



In the case of very hard negatives intended for enlargement, the

usual treatment is to sun the whole surface of the transparency in

order to secure detail in the high-lights. A moment's consideration

will convince any practical printer that nothing but injury to the

final print can result from such treatment of the transparency. The

high-lights are degraded, the details in the shadows further buried.

The better method is to make an extra special transparency tissue,

for the printing of such hard negatives, containing a greatly

reduced proportion of pigment to gelatine. Such a tissue permits

greater depth of printing, retains all details in the shadows and

high-lights, and, in fact, enables the enlarger to produce a

negative that will yield a thoroughly satisfactory print.





REPRODUCED NEGATIVES.



In making reproduced negatives from hard originals, ordinary

transparency tissue will serve every purpose. The transparency is

printed in the usual way, and developed on a prepared glass plate;

when dry a negative is printed from the transparency without special

treatment and also developed on glass, when a decided reduction of

density will be found to have taken place. The reproduced negative

will possess all the good qualities of the original, plus improved

printing quality. It is only in the case of extremely hard negatives

that the extra special tissue is required.



If a perfect reproduction of an original negative is required, the

transparency must be printed either in very weak light or in direct

sunlight. Either method gives a brighter image than that produced in

ordinary diffused daylight. The same method must be adopted in

printing the negative.



_Note._--Care must be taken when direct sunlight is used to see that

the pressure frame and everything in and about it is thoroughly dry,

otherwise the tissue may stick to the negative, spoiling the print

and probably the negative also. It must also be noted that two

tints, printed in direct sunlight, although of apparently the same

depth, mean quite as much as three such tints printed in diffused

light.





FAILURES AND DEFECTS: THEIR CAUSES AND CURE.



As a rule, failures in working the carbon process are caused, as in

most other cases of failure, by imperfect _knowledge of the

substances and nature of the ingredients used in the process_.

Before going into further detail, it may be as well to point out

that a great deal of misunderstanding has been caused, by writers on

this subject--that may be fairly termed "blind leaders of the

blind." With only slight knowledge of the subject they have misled

beginners by assuring them that the process is simplicity itself, in

fact the most simple photographic printing process extant. Up to a

certain point, and to that certain point only, is such description

true. There are no subtle chemical combinations, no mixing and

maturing of toning or other solutions. But--and in this case there

is great virtue in the _but_--the greatest care is not only

required, it is absolutely demanded, in manipulation. A carbon print

from start to finish is probably subject to more chances of injury

than any other form of print in existence. When this fact has been

fully grasped by the novice, and he has been thoroughly prepared for

the difficulties before him, the rest is plain sailing. Care, and

care only; nothing beyond. He who wishes to succeed in carbon work

must pay infinite attention to every small matter of detail as far

as such detail relates to manipulation, otherwise he will only

succeed in achieving failure.





FRILLING AND RETICULATIONS.



Frilly reticulations are generally caused by over-soaking the tissue

before development, or failing to provide protection of the clear

portions of the margin of the negative by a safe edge.





SPOTS ON THE FINISHED PRINT.



Spots are generally caused by solid particles of grit or other

impurities being allowed to find their way into the water in the

process of development, or, as in the case of certain peculiar

circular spots that often deface the carbon print, such spots are

caused by small fragments of tissue broken from the edges in

cutting, which, being of the same colour as the prepared surface of

the tissue and exceedingly small, often escape notice. They adhere

most tenaciously to the surface of the tissue, and if not removed

before the print is mounted upon its temporary or final support,

cause the mischief referred to; being confined between two surfaces

they cannot escape, but are dissolved by the water used in

developing the print, swell and make a circular patch, often greatly

injuring the picture.



Spots of a different character are produced in quite an opposite

direction. Instead of being black they are light, in groups each

spot having a dark rim on the outside. They generally occur in

under-exposed prints, and are formed by fine particles of air

imprisoned between the coating of gelatine and the paper support.

When the tissue is mounted for development and placed in warm water,

the fine particles of air swell, and not being able to escape from

between the surfaces, impress themselves into the yielding portions

of the printed tissue and make the marks above referred to, unless

the printing has been deep enough to allow of their removal before

development is completed.





CAUSE OF FAILURES IN THE SECOND TRANSFER.



Other causes of failure refer particularly to prints by double

transfer, either to paper, opal, ivory, canvas or wood panel or any

similar surfaces.



Such failures are generally produced by _soap_, _fat_, or _any kind_

of greasy substances being permitted to find their way into the

water in which such prints have been manipulated previous to their

final transfer. Another point should be mentioned: the sooner a

print intended for second transfer is finished the better the result

will be.





PRESSURE MARKS.



Pressure marks are caused by using damp tissue or damp pads in the

pressure frame. It is recommended that a piece of waterproof

material, such as mackintosh cloth, be placed between the tissue and

the padding, and that the pads be as smooth and free from grain as

possible. It will be found on close examination that the mottled,

spotty appearance, known as pressure marks, closely resemble the

texture of the pads behind the tissue.



                                        _Thos. S. Skelton._









INDEX.





  =A.=

  Alpine Photography, 9

    "  Outfit for, 9

    "  Lens for, 10

    "  Carrying camera in, 12

    "  Plates for, 14

    "  Carrying Baggage for, 15

    "  Outfit for Developing, 16

    "  Exposures, 17

    "  Development, 18

    "    "  Formulae, 20

    "  Light (tables), 21, 22



  Accelerator, 24



  Alum Bath, Formula, 41



  Aberration, Spherical, 60

    "  Chromatic, 61



  Astigmatism, 62



  Aplanat Lens, 64



  Astigmat Lens, 64



  Aperture of Lens, 68



  Angle of Image, 70



  Accessories in Portraiture, 79



  Architectural Photography, 117

    "             "  Camera for, 118

    "             "  Lenses for, 119

    "             "  Plates for, 122



  Actinometer for Platinotype, 208

      "       for Carbon Process, 271





  =B.=



  Backing Mixtures, 49



  Background in Portraiture, 78



  Breadth in Pictorial Work, 93



  Blisters on P.O.P, 194



  Bromide Printing, 225

    "  Safe light for, 226

    "  Negative for, 227



  Bromide Paper, sensitive side of, 227

    "  Printing, 232, 233, 227

    "    "  Lamp for, 228



  Bromide Printing, masks and discs, 230

    "       "       Vignetting, 231

    "       "       Cloud Printing, 231



  Bromide Paper, development of., 233

    "       "    Iron developer for, 234

    "       "    Metol, 235

    "       "    Hydrokinone for, 236

    "       "    Eikonogen for, 236

    "       "    Clearing Bath, 235

    "       "    Fixing Bath, 235



  Bromide Prints, toning with gold, 237

    "       "     Toning with Uranium, 238

    "       "     Intensifying, 238

    "       "     Reducing, 239

    "       "     Cheap Trays for, 240





  =C.=



  Camera, Carrying in Alps, 12



  Caramel for Backing, 49



  Curvature of Field of Lens, 62



  Cooke Lens, 65



  Composition in Pictorial Work, 95



  Clearing Bath for Platinotype, 203, 218



  Cloud Printing on Bromide Paper, 231



  Clearing Bath for Bromides, 235



  Clearing Bath for Gum-Print, 251



  Carbon Process, outline of, 253

    "  Safe Edge for, 269, 255

    "  Carbon Process, Negative for, 255

    "  Transfer Paper for, 266, 256

    "  Temporary Support, 258

    "  in Detail, 261

    "  Squeegee for, 263

    "  Stock Jelly, 263

    "  Coating Paper for, 264

    "  Transfer Papers for, 266

    "  Flexible Support, 267

    "  Sensitizing Tissue for, 267

    "  Drying Tissue, 267

    "  Negative for, 268

    "  Reasons for Transfer, 269

    "  Transfer to Opal, 271

    "  Actinometer, 271

    "  Exposure, 272

    "  Transfer from Opal, 272

    "  T'sfer. from Flex. Spt., 274

    "  Glazed Surface Prints, 275

    "  Transfer to Ivory, 276

    "  Transfer to Canvas, 276

    "  Preparation of Canvas, 277

    "    "  Linen, 278

    "    "  Wood, 279

    "  Single Transfer, 289

    "  Transparencies by, 280

    "  Reproduced Negs. by, 281

    "  Failures and Defects, 282

    "  Frilling of Print, 283

    "  Spots, etc, 283

    "  Pressure Marks, 284



  Canvas, Carbon Prints on., 276





  =D.=



  Development, 23

    "  Dishes for, 25

    "  Effect of Temperature on, 28

    "  Light for Developing Room, 28

    "  with Pyro-Ammonia, 29

    "    "  Formulae, 30

    "  with Pyro-Soda, 33

    "    "  Formulae, 34

    "  with Ortol, Formulae, 35

    "  with Hydroquinone (Quinol), 36

    "    "  Formulae, 36

    "  with Ferrous Oxalate, 36

    "    "  Formulae, 37



  Drying Plates, 41



  Dark Room Light, Testing, 44



  Defects of Negative, 43



  Dallmeyer's Portrait Lens, 64

    "  Stigmatic Lens, 65



  Depth of Definition (Focus), 71



  Distortion of Lens, 72



  Development of Portrait Negative, 81

    "              "  Formulae, 83



  Detail in Pictorial Work, 110, 93



  Development in Hand Cam. Exps., 137

    "  Formulae, 138

    "  of Lantern slides, 149, 147

    "  of Enlargements, 168

    "  of P.O.P, 188

    "  Platinotype Paper, 221, 204

    "  of Bromide Paper, 234-6, 233

    "  of Gum Print, 250





  =E.=



  Exposure, Over, 27, 32

    "  Under, 27, 32

    "  Table with Pinhole, 76



  Exposure of Lantern Slides, 146



  Enlargements, 155

    "  Light for, 156, 162

    "  Daylight, 156

    "  Apparatus for, 157

    "  Lens, 164

    "  Direct, 167

    "  Development of, 168



  Enlarged Negatives, 171

    "        "  Transparency for, 172



  Exposure in Carbon Printing, 272





  =F.=



  Fixing, 37

    "  Formula, 38



  Frilling, 41



  Flat Image, 44



  Fog on Negative, 44



  Fog-Green, 45



  Focal Length of Lens, 66

    "     " Comparison of, 67



  Focussing Interiors, 127



  Finders for Hand Cameras, 134



  Focussing Scale for Hand Camera, 135



  Fixing Bath for Bromide, 235



  Frilling of Carbon Print, 283



  Failures in Carbon Printing, 282



  Flexible Suppt. Carbon Process, 267, 274



      FORMULAE:--

    Development, Pyro-amm. (Abney), 20

      "            "       (Bothamly), 30

      "  Pyro-soda           " , 34

      "  Ortol               " , 35

      "  Hydrokinone         " , 36

      "  Ferrous Oxalate     " , 37

    Fixing, Hypo             " , 38

    Clearing, Alum           " , 41

    Reduction, Ferricyanide  " , 50

    Belitzski Reducer        " , 51

    Intensification, Mercury " , 52

      "              Uranium " , 54

    Development, Metol    (Baker), 83

      "  Pyro-Soda          " , 83

      "  Quinol and Rodinal " , 83

      "  Amidol     (Thomas), 138

      "  Hydrokinone  " , 138

      "  Eikonogen    " , 138

      "  Metol      (Pringle), 150

      "  Ortol        " , 151

      "  Hydrokinone  " , 151

      "  Amidol      (Hodges), 169

    Fixing, Hypo       " , 171

    P.O.P. Toning, Gold    (Lambert), 180, 181, 182

      "    Alum Bath         " , 184

      " Combined Bath (gold) " , 184

      "       "       (lead) " , 184

      "       "       (gold) " , 185

    P.O.P. Glazing           " , 186

      "  Mounting            " , 187

      "  Development, Quinol ", 188

      "  Toning, Platinum    " , 190

      "  Fixing              " , 191

      "  Toning (gold)       " , 191

      "  Reducing            " , 192

      "  Tinting             " , 194

    Platinotype Clearing (Hinton), 203

      " Developing         "  , 202, 214

      " Toning             "  , 223

    Bromide Develping., Iron, (Henry), 234

      "  Clearing               " , 235

      "  Fixing              (Henry), 235

      "  Developing, Metol     " , 235

      "  Quinol & Eikonogen    " , 236

      "  Toning (gold)         " , 237

      "  Reducing              " , 238, 239

    Carbon Process Waxing,    (Skelton), 259

      "      "  Tissue Jelly    " , 263

      "      "  Waxing          " , 274

      "      "  Collodion       " , 276

      "      "  Substratum      " , 276, 278, 279, 280





  =G.=



  Green Fog, 45

    "     "  Cure for, 46



  Glazing P.O.P., 185, 186



  Gum Bichromate Process, 241

   "    "  Paper for, 243

   "    "  Outline of Process, 245

   "    "  Gum Solution, 246

   "    "  Colours, 246

   "    "  Brushes for, 247

   "    "  Development, 250

   "    "  Clearing Bath, 251





  =H.=



  Hypo.--Test for, 40



  Hard Image, 44



  Halation, 48



  Head-rest in Portraiture, 78



  Hand Camera, Photography with, 131

    "    "  Lens for, 133

    "    "  Finders for, 134

    "    "  Shutter for, 134

    "    "  Focussing Scale for, 135

    "    "  Development of Exposures, 137



  Hardening P.O.P., 195





  =I.=



  Intensification of Negatives, 51

    "  with Mercury formulae, 51

    "  with Uranium formulae, 53



  Image Formation, 58



  Image Angle, 70



  Isochromatic Plates for Pict. Work, 115



  Interior--Focussing, 127

    "  Exposure for, 127



  Intensification of Lantern Slides, 153

    "  of P.O.P., 191



  Intensifying Bromide Prints, 238



  Ivory, Carbon Prints on, 276





  =J.=



  Jena Glass for Lenses, 64





  =L.=



  Latent Image, 23



  Local Development, 20, 32



  Lens, 57

    "  Function of a, 59

    "  Aberrations of a, 60



  Lenses, Comparison of, 73

    "  Testing, 73



  Lens for Pictorial Work, 113

  "  for Architectural Work, 120



  Levels " "             " , 121



  Lens for Hand Camera, 133



  Lantern Slides, 141

    "       "  Various Processes, 143

    "       "  Camera for Making, 144

    "       "  Exposure of, 146

    "       "  Development, 147, 149

    "       "  Warm Tones on, 148, 152

    "       "  Reducer for, 153

    "       "  Intensifier for, 153



  Linen, Prints on by Carbon Process, 278





  =M.=



  Mountain Photography see Alpine do.



  Monocles, 75



  Moving Objects & Architectl. Work, 129



  Mounting P.O.P., 187





  =N.=



  Negative Making, 23

   "  Washing, 39

   "  Drying, 40

   "  Defects of the, 43

   "  too Thin, 43

   "  too Dense, 43

   "  Image too Flat, 44

   "  Image too Dense, 44

   "  Fog on, 44

   "  Green Fog on, 45

   "  Black Spots, Marks, Bands on, 46

   "  Transpnt. Bands, Spots on, 47

   "  Stains on, 47

   "  to Intensify, 51

   "  to Reduce, 49

   "  to Varnish, 54

   "  for Platinotype, 222

   "  for Bromide Printing, 227

   "  Reprodn. by Carbon Process, 281

   "  for Carbon Printing, 268, 255





  =O.=



  Optics--see Lenses, 57



  Opal for Carbon Print, 272, 271





  =P.=



  Preservative, 25



  Pinhole Image, 75, 58



  Portrait Lens, 64, 63



  Planar Lens of Zeiss, 65



  Pinhole Table of Exposures, 75



  Portraiture, 77

    "  Shutter for, 77

    "  in Ordinary Rooms, 79



  Portraits Out-of-Doors, 80



  Portraiture, Lenses for, 80

    " Development in, 81

    "   "   Formulae,  83



  Pictorial Photography, 87



  Plates for Architectural Work, 122



  P.O.P., Print-out Paper, 177

   "  Care of the Paper, 178

   "  Printing, 178

   "  Washing, 179

   "  Toning, 180

   "  Fixing, 183

   "  Combined Bath for, 184

   "  Alum Bath for, 184

   "  Drying, 185

   "  Glazing, 186, 185

   "  Matt Surface, 185

   "  Mounting, 187

   "  Development of, 188

   "  Platinum Toning, 189

   "  Toning with Gold & Platnm., 191

   "  Intensifying, 191

   "  Reducing, 192

   "  Defects of, 193

   "  Stains on, 195, 193

   "  Blisters, 194

   "  Tinting, 194

   "  Hardening, 195

   "  Spots on, 195



  Printing P.O.P., 178



  Platinotype Printing, 197

    "  Paper to Preserve, 199

    "  Outline of Process, 201

    "  Development, 220, 204

    "  Exposure of, 206, 202

    "  with Act'meter, 207

    "  Temperature of Develmt., 212

    "  Developing Salts, 213

    "  Papers, various kinds, 214

    "  Sepia Paper, 215

    "  Clearing Bath, 203, 218

    "  Devpmt. by Glyc. method, 221

    "  Negative for, 222

    "  Prints Toning, 223



  Printing Bromide Paper, 232, 233, 227



  Papers for Gum-Bichro. Process, 243



  Pressure Marks in Carbon Prints, 284





  =R.=



  Restrainer or Retarder, 24



  Reducer, 24



  Reduction of negative, 49

    "  Formulae, 50, 51



  Reduction, local, 50



  Refraction of Light, 60



  Rapid Rectilinear, Symmetrical, Lens, 64



  Rapidity of Lens, 68



  Rembrandt Effects in Portraiture, 79



  Retouching Portrait Negative, 83



  Reducer for Lantern Slides, 153



  Reducing P.O.P., 192



  Reducing Bromide Prints, 239



  Reticulation of Carbon Prints, 283



  Reproduction of Neg. by Car. Pro., 281





  =S.=



  Satz-Anastigmat Lens, 65



  Stigmatic Lens of Dallmeyer, 69



  Stops, Value of, 69



  Stops, Comparative Value, Table, 70



  Spectacle Lens, 75



  Selection in Pictorial Work, 95



  Shutter for Hand Camera, 134



  Stains on P.O.P., 193, 195



  Sepia Platinotype, 215



  Spots on Carbon Prints, 283



  Single Transfer Carbon Process, 289



  Safe Edge for Carbon Printing, 255, 269



  Sensitizing Carbon Tissue, 267





  =T.=



  Tripod on Ice, a caution, 14



  Test for Hypo, 40



  Testing Dark-room Light, 44



  Tele-photo Lens, 70



  Truth in Pictorial Photograph, 91



  Tone Value, 107



  Toning P.O.P., 180, 189, 191



  Tinting P.O.P., 194



  Toning Platinotypes, 223, 224



  Toning Bromide Prints (gold), 237

    "  (uranium) 238



  Trays for Bromide Printing, 240



  Transparency by Carbon Process, 280



  T'sfer. Paper for Carbon P'cess., 256, 266



  Temporary Support, Carbon Process, 258



  TABLES:--



    Light, 21, 22

    Stops,70

    Pinholes, 75





  =V.=



  View Finder, 13



  Varnishing Negatives, 54



  Vignetting Bromide Prints, 231





  =W.=



  Washing Plates after Development, 38



  Wood, Carbon Prints on, 279





  =Z.=



  Zeiss-Planar Lens, 65

    "  Lens for Architecture, 120



       *       *       *       *       *       *       *       *       *









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                       Transcription Notes:



  The original spelling and grammar have been retained. Footnotes have

  been moved to the end of the paragraphs in which they are referenced.

  Minor adjustments to hyphenation and other punctuation have been made

  without annotation. The caret symbol ^ is used to represent a number

  or expression raised to some power (5^2=25).



  Typographical changes to the original work are as follows:



    pg 10 kodak/Kodak: a form of ...

    pg 15 removed repeated word at: can be got at ...

    pg 62 simultaneouly/simultaneously: where they cross ...

    pg 81 two/too: too far behind or ...

    pg 95 frolicing/frolicking: joyous sunshine ...

    pg 108 rythmical/rhythmical: something ...

    pg 144 salutory/salutary: has a very ...

    pg 145 concatention/concatenation: under any ...

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