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H. P. Robinson and Capt. Abney



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Title: The Art and Practice of Silver Printing



Author: H. P. Robinson

        Capt. Abney



Release Date: April 10, 2013 [EBook #42547]



Language: English



Character set encoding: ASCII



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Transcriber's Note:



Inconsistent numbering of figures and references to figures have been

retained as in the original publication.









[Illustration: A Specimen of Woodburytype Printing.]









THE ART AND PRACTICE OF SILVER PRINTING.



    BY

    H. P. ROBINSON & CAPT. ABNEY, R.E., F.R.S.



    THE AMERICAN EDITION,



    NEW YORK:

    E. & H. T. ANTHONY & CO., NO. 591 BROADWAY.

    1881.









PREFACE.





Silver printing has been often doomed, but it still survives. Other

processes of photographic printing have been introduced, nearly all of

them having their individual merits, especially that of permanency, but

all lacking in two essential qualities--ease of production and beauty

of result. In these particulars no process has ever approached the one

to the working of which this little book is devoted. The one defect of

silver printing is the possibility of its results fading; but surely

it is better to be beautiful, if fading, than permanent and ugly. It

is better to be charmed with a beautiful thing for a few years, than

be bored by an ugly one for ever. But is silver printing necessarily

a fading process? We have in our possession a large number of silver

photographs produced from twenty to twenty-five years ago, which are

as perfect in tone and colour as when they were produced. Carefully

prepared, and properly kept, a silver print should be as permanent as

any other. That silver prints should be permanent as well as beautiful,

has been the object of



    THE AUTHORS.









TABLE OF CONTENTS.





    CHAPTER                                                  PAGE



        I.--Preliminary Experiments                             1



       II.--Preparation of Albumenized Paper                    6



      III.--The Sensitizing Bath                               13



       IV.--How to Keep the Sensitizing Bath in Order          20



        V.--Silvering the Paper                                26



       VI.--Washed Sensitive Paper                             31



      VII.--Cutting Paper                                      36



     VIII.--Printing-Frames                                    42



       IX.--Preparing the Landscape Negative                   45



        X.--Printing the Landscape                             49



       XI.--Preparing the Portrait Negative                    57



      XII.--Vignetting                                         60



     XIII.--Printing the Portrait                              69



      XIV.--Combination Printing                               74



       XV.--Toning                                             85



      XVI.--Fixing the Print                                   92



     XVII.--Washing the Print                                  95



    XVIII.--Printing on Plain Paper                            99



      XIX.--Printing on Resinized Paper                       100



       XX.--Printing on Gelatino-Chloride Emulsion Paper      103



      XXI.--Drying the Prints                                 105



     XXII.--Mounting Photographs                              110



    XXIII.--Defects in Prints                                 115



     XXIV.--Encaustic Paste                                   117



      XXV.--Enamelling Prints                                 119



     XXVI.--Cameo Prints                                      121



    Appendix                                                  123









CHAPTER I.



THEORY OF SILVER PRINTING.





Perhaps it may be wise, first of all, to give the reader some account

of the manner in which the subject of silver printing is to be treated,

before entering into very minute details, so that it may be followed

as a whole, instead of being studied in fragments, a course which is

sure to lead to failure, from a want of comprehending what may have

been skipped. To understand "the why" and "the wherefore" of every

detail is an essential in most occupations, and it is wonderful that

photographers are satisfied with the results of rule-of-thumb formulae,

instead of reasoning out their utility. In the following pages most of

the theoretical considerations will be brought out in such a manner that

everyone will be able to understand them, provided only that there is a

slight acquaintance with the name and properties of the chemicals which

are dealt with.





PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTS.



Into a glass beaker put a couple of pinches of common salt, which must

be dissolved in a little water.



In a test-tube[1] dissolve about an equal amount of silver nitrate

(AgNO_{3}), and add it to the salt solution. We shall find that we

have an immediate precipitate, for chloride of silver will be formed

by what is called double[2] decomposition, and there will remain in

solution a soluble salt known as sodium nitrate. When the silver

chloride has settled down, decant off the liquid, and add water to it

once or twice, draining off each time. Divide the chloride into four

parts, placing each part on a strip of glass. On two of them pour a

little common salt solution, and on the other two pour a little solution

of silver nitrate; take one of each pair, and place it in a dark

cupboard (if warmed, the quicker will be the operation) to dry. Take

the other two moist portions of chloride into the open air, and expose

them to daylight, and note the results. It will be seen that one of

these will darken very rapidly to a violet colour, whilst the other will

remain much lighter, though perceptibly blackening. After a time the

latter will appear to grow deeper, whilst the former will become a deep

black. The one that blackens most rapidly will be found to be that one

on which the silver nitrate was poured. Divide the slightly blackened

chloride on the strip of glass into two portions, and over one pour a

little beer, and over the other a weak solution of potassium nitrite,

and again note the difference. It will be found that here the blackening

commences anew, but proceeds much more rapidly on that portion over

which the nitrite was poured. Here are the experiments. What do they

teach?



Potassium nitrite, and silver nitrate, are both inorganic salts, and

they both have an affinity for--that is, tend to combine with--any

of the halogens (by which are meant such bodies as chlorine, iodine,

bromine, and fluorine). In the former case we have silver chloride

formed with a little hypo-chlorous acid; in the latter we have a more

difficult decomposition: the potassium nitrite is decomposed into

hydrochloric acid and potassium nitrate.[3]



We can tell that chlorine is liberated by the action of light on silver

chloride, since if we prepare some as above, well wash it, and expose it

to light in pure water, we shall find that the latter contains chlorine,

since a few drops of silver nitrate poured into it after exposure give a

white precipitate.



If we make the same experiments with the dried portions of silver

chloride as we did with the moist, we shall obtain the same results,

with the exception that with the dried, in which there is excess of

salt, there will be hardly any discolouration. The experimentalist

should also note that if the darkened chloride be broken up, the

interior retains its white colour in all its purity. This tells us that

the discolouration is _almost_ confined to the surface, hence it is

useless, for printing purposes, to have such a mass of chloride as would

be opaque, since all but a very thin film would be unacted upon.



If the darkened chloride be examined closely, it will be seen that

the colour varies, being bluer in the case of that which has silver

nitrate in contact with it (either moist or dry) as compared with that

which is darkened in contact with the potassium nitrite. We have the

best of reasons for believing that the blue colour is really due to a

combination between the sub-chloride and the oxygen contained in the

water or in the air. The true colour of the sub-chloride is that which

is exposed beneath an oxygen absorbent such as the nitrite.



Practical printers are aware that albumenized paper containing a

chloride is employed for producing silver prints, and the probability is

that the albumen must exercise some kind of influence on the resulting

picture. Let us examine this, and see what effect it can have. Carefully

break an egg, and separate the yolk from the white, pouring the latter

into a beaker. Beat up the white with a bundle of quill pens, allow the

froth to subside, and then filter it. Pour a little of the filtered

albumen (the white of egg) into a test-tube, and add a little silver

nitrate solution to it, and expose the precipitate which falls to light.

It will be seen that it darkens rapidly, assuming a foxy red colour.

Take a couple of glass plates and coat them with plain collodion, wash

under the tap, and whilst still moist flow albumen over them two or

three times, and set them up to dry. When thoroughly dry, plunge them

for a few seconds into a weak solution of silver nitrate (30 grains

to the ounce of water will suffice), wash one under the tap, and then

allow both to dry again. Take both plates out into the light, and note

the results. The one from which the silver nitrate has not been washed

will darken very rapidly, the other will take some time to start; but if

the exposure be sufficiently prolonged, it will gradually assume a hue

equally as dark as the other.



If we repeat these experiments with gelatine, which is used as a sizing

in some papers, we shall find very much the same nature of things taking

place, the differences being so slight, however, as not to require

detailed notice.



So far, then, we have considered the darkening properties of the silver

compounds which are to be used by the printer, but it remains to be

seen what _permanency of darkening_ they possess. If we treat the

darkened silver chloride solution exposed with the silver nitrate or

the potassium nitrite to a solution of hyposulphite of soda or ammonia,

both of which are solvents of the white chloride, we shall find that

a residue of metallic silver is left behind. If we treat the darkened

albuminate of silver with the same agents, we shall find that very

little change is effected by them.



From this we may gather that the action of light on them is of a totally

different nature.[4] This is also most marked if we treat the two with

hydrosulphuric acid solution (sulphuretted hydrogen[5]). It will be

found that the colour of the darkened silver chloride becomes more

intense, while the other is bleached, or, rather, becomes of a yellow

tint. This last effect has an important bearing on the permanency of

silver prints, as will be more fully explained when considering the

subject of fixing the print.









CHAPTER II.



PREPARATION OF ALBUMENIZED PAPER.





In printing on albumenized paper we must divide the operations, and give

a detailed account of each. In case the reader may desire to prepare his

own paper, we give the following formula and directions.



To prepare the albumen, procure a sufficient number of eggs, remembering

that the white of a large egg will be about a fluid ounce; have a cup

to collect the yolks, and a four-ounce measure at hand. Give the centre

of the egg a smart blow against the top of the cup. The shell can now

be readily pulled in two, the yolk remaining unbroken with part of the

albumen in one half, and the rest of the albumen in the other half of

the shell. Take the halves, one in each hand, and pour the albumen from

one to the other, holding them over the small measure. As the operation

continues, the yolk will gradually separate, the white falling into the

vessel below. If conducted with care, the whole of the latter will be

collected without breaking the yolk. If the yolk break, some will be

sure to find its way into the measure along with the white, and this,

together with the white speck known as the tread, must be rigorously

taken out by means of a spoon. The _uncontaminated_ white is then poured

into a large jar. If the operator carefully collects the white of each

egg into the four-ounce ounce measure first, he will find his labour

much diminished, as it is awkward to get out the small pieces of yolk

from a large quantity of albumen. The eggs are thus broken, and the

white collected till there is a sufficient quantity for the purpose

in hand. Suppose we are going to make up 20 ounces of solution, then

about 18 ounces of white of egg must be found in the jar. One point

to settle is the amount of salt to be used to each ounce of albumen.

It must be recollected that a medium quantity is the best for medium

negatives; anything between 20 and 40 grains per ounce may be used.

We prefer ourselves about 25. Supposing this quantity to be used, we

proceed to dissolve 500 grains of chloride of ammonium in 2 ounces of

water, and add it to the albumen. It has been proved that as regards

colour of the picture, it does not matter what chloride is used. To

prevent crystallization, it is better to use ammonium, which contains

a greater amount of chlorine than do sodium or potassium chlorides. It

must now be beaten up till it is in a froth. This breaks up the fibrous

matter, and on subsidence the liquid will be found to be limpid. The

most convenient implement with which to beat up the albumen is the

American egg-beater. Three or four minutes' work is quite sufficient

to make the whole into a froth. An ordinary culinary whisk, such as is

used in the kitchen, may also be put into requisition, or, in default

of that, a bundle of quill pens. A lesson in producing a froth can be

learnt from the cook of the establishment. When the salted albumen has

settled it must be filtered, which, perhaps, is best effected through

a sponge, though glass-wool is a capital substitute. In either case a

small, loosely-fitting plug is placed in the neck of an ordinary funnel,

and, after rinsing with cold water, the albumen is poured in, and

allowed to filter through slowly. It is advisable to avoid bubbles as

far as possible, and the accompanying arrangement will be found to avoid

their formation. The funnel is placed in the position shown (fig. 1);

the capillary attraction between it and the glass will cause the drops

to trickle down the side, and collect, without bubbles, at the bottom.

This little contrivance will be found of use in other operations besides

that of silver printing, and should be made a note of. The albumen may

also be filtered through one, two, or three thicknesses of muslin,

according to its fineness, tied over the mouth of a bottle or beaker of

which the bottom has been removed. The albumen is placed in a vessel

slightly larger than the filter, which is allowed to sink gradually.

When full it is withdrawn, and the fluid poured into the dish. By this

plan upward filtration is established. The fluid may be poured into the

filter itself, and used in the ordinary manner.[6]



[Illustration: _Fig._ 1.]



[Illustration: _Fig._ 2.]



On a larger scale, white of eggs in a fresh condition can be obtained

from egg merchants who utilize the yolks by selling them to the grocers

and confectioners. Albumen can be obtained by the gallon in this

condition, according to the price of eggs. It will be evident that

there is considerable economy in taking the whites wholesale. As a

rule, about three gallons of albumen will coat two reams of albumenized

paper. Mr. England (to whom we are indebted for so many of our remarks

on albumenizing paper) procures about the latter quantity at a time, and

beats it up mechanically in a large vat holding some fifty gallons, in

order to allow space for the froth. He allows the albumen to rest four

days before employing it, and filters it through three thicknesses of

flannel.



The quality of paper to be used varies considerably with the custom of

the printer. Thus, in some countries, we find a much thinner paper used

than in England. The great desideratum is that it should be perfectly

opaque to transmitted light. A good test of this is to make a couple of

black ink marks on a piece of white paper, and then press down firmly

the paper it is proposed to employ over this. If the black ink marks are

indistinguishable, the paper will do as regards this quality, as the

light reflected from the surface which gives the impression of whiteness

to the eye is much stronger than the light which penetrates through it,

and is absorbed by the black lines. As to quality, it is best to trust

to the manufacturer, those known as Saxe and Rives papers answering

better than any other that we know of. The Rives is, when moist, a paper

which is more easily torn than the Saxe, and, consequently, we recommend

that the former be employed for small work, such as portraits, and the

latter for large landscape prints.



In regard to the sizes to be albumenized, it must be left to the

operator to say what will be the most useful to him. It is rarely

advisable to albumenize less than a half sheet of paper, the whole size

of which is about 22 by 18 inches; 11 by 18 is not an inconvenient

size to manipulate. At any rate, a dish larger each way by a couple of

inches than the paper must be procured, and put on a level table. The

temperature of the room should be at least 90 deg., in fact, the hotter

it is the more glossy will be the resulting paper. The solution, free

from bubbles, is poured in, and should be of a depth of at least 1/2

an inch. Suppose the smaller size to be coated, before commencing, the

paper is taken by the two opposite corners, the hands brought together,

and the convex side brought on to the surface of the fluid; the hands

are then separated, and the paper will gradually float on the surface.

One corner should be gradually raised to see that all air-bubbles are

absent. If there be any, they should be broken with the point of a glass

rod, and the paper again lowered. Bubbles can usually be seen through

the paper, and, instead of raising it, a few gentle taps with the finger

over the spot will generally move the bubble to the edge of the paper.

In practice, some have found it well to moisten the surface of the paper

with a damp sponge, and when quite surface dry to albumenize it. This

should, however, be unnecessary. The sheet should remain on the albumen

a little over a minute, when it could be gently raised by one corner and

allowed to drain over a basin; it is then caught by a couple of American

clips and hung up to dry.[7]



[Illustration: _Fig._ 3.]



Supposing a whole sheet is to be coated, it will be found more

convenient to take the sheet by the corners of _one end_, one in each

hand, and to lower the surface near the end of the dish, and gradually

draw the paper over the side of the dish till the whole surface is flat.

Bubbles can be got rid of as shown above.



Two large dishes are usually employed, and by the time the second sheet

is floated in the second dish, the first sheet of paper is ready for

removal from the first dish. The sheets, when slowly removed from the

bath, are allowed to drain a few seconds, and then thrown over wooden

rods of some two inches in diameter, which are removed to a rack,

and placed near a trough to collect the drainings.[8] When drained

sufficiently the rods are removed to other racks, and the paper allowed

to dry spontaneously.



It is the practice of some albumenized paper manufacturers to hang the

sheets over a line, uncoated side next the line; but this is a mistake,

as it will nearly always be found, on sensitising the paper and exposing

it, that a mark is left across the paper corresponding to the part where

the string touched the back of the paper.



In practice we have found that each sheet of paper takes up about 1/3

oz. of solution, and, of course, its equivalent quantity of salt. The

principal difficulty in albumenizing paper is the occurrence of lines

on the paper in the direction in which it was placed on the surface of

the albumen. Any arrest of motion in floating the paper will cause them,

but more usually it is due to imperfect beating up of the solution. Some

papers are not readily coated with albumen, in which case the remedy

given above may prove effectual; or a little solution of oxgall may be

equally well applied. A want of gloss in the dried albumen may be due to

too long a floating on the fluid, or to floating and drying the paper

in too low a temperature. The explanation of the first cause is that

albumen, when fresh, has an alkaline reaction, due to the presence of a

small quantity of soda, which may be said to be its base, and any alkali

will dissolve the gelatinous sizing of a paper. When the sizing is

dissolved, instead of remaining on the surface, the albumen sinks into

the paper, and thereby the gloss is lost.



When albumen is stale it no longer possesses this alkaline reaction, but

has an acid reaction quite visible on the application of blue litmus

paper to it; the blue colour disappears and is replaced by a red tint.

When in the alkaline state, the paper is much more difficult to coat,

but an acid condition means the production of inferior tones.



_Rolling the Paper._--The paper, when dried, is often rolled with a

heavy pressure to improve the gloss; a copper-plate press is found

to answer admirably, placing the albumenized side next the bed. This

rolling should not be necessary if attention be paid to the temperature

of the preparation room. The higher the temperature the finer will be

the gloss, as we have already said.









CHAPTER III.



THE SENSITIZING BATH FOR ALBUMENIZED PAPER.





To render albumenized paper sensitive to light it has to be treated with

a solution of silver nitrate, and the most convenient method of applying

it is to float it on a dish containing the silver salt in solution. The

first point to consider is the strength of the solution. If we float

albumenized paper (face downwards) on a solution of 10 grains of silver

nitrate to the ounce of water, we shall find, what at first sight may

seem to be remarkable, that the albumen will be dissolved away from the

paper, and that there will be a precipitate left in the silver solution.

Why is this?



It must be remembered that albumen is soluble in water: it is coagulated

or insoluble in water when combined with silver nitrate. The fact

is that the quantity of silver nitrate in the solution we have been

experimenting with is too small. The water dissolves the albumen first,

and then the silver has time to act upon it to form the insoluble

albuminate. If we soak paper in common salt, and treat it in the same

way with the same strength of solution, we shall find that this is not

the case: the silver chloride will remain on the paper. From this we

learn two facts.



1st. That the silver solution has a greater affinity for the chloride

than for the albuminate, and that in an equal mixture of the two more

chloride would be formed than albuminate; in other words, that the

ammonium chloride would be totally converted into silver chloride long

before the silver albuminate was formed.



2nd. That a certain strength of silver nitrate is necessary to prevent

the albumen dissolving from off the paper.



This last fact has fixed the lowest strength of any sensitizing solution

to be thirty grains to the ounce, and even if this be taken as a limit,

it is necessary that the water should be rendered less active by holding

some other soluble matter in its embraces. This is usually effected by

adding some other neutral and inactive nitrates. There does not seem to

be any theoretical limit to the amount of silver nitrate in solution,

but practically it rarely contains more than 80 grains to the ounce,

though occasionally we have heard of it being used of a strength of 100

grains to the ounce.



The important point now presents itself. How are we to fix the strength

of the bath? What principles must we follow?



To answer these questions we extract a passage from another work of this

series.[9]



"If a paper be coated with albumen (say) in which has been dissolved

a certain quantity of a soluble chloride, and floated on a silver

solution, both chloride and albuminate of silver are formed. It depends,

however, on the strength of the solution as to what proportions of each

are present, owing to the fact that the organic compound is much slower

in formation than the chloride, and has less affinity for the silver.

If the silver solution be not sufficiently strong, the chloride may rob

that portion of it with which it is in contact of all the silver before

any (or, at all events, sufficient) albuminate has been formed, the

molecule being composed almost entirely of silver chloride. The stronger

the silver solution the more 'organate' will it contain; whilst if it

be very weak, very little will be present. Hence it is with albumenized

paper which is weakly salted with a silver chloride a weak sensitizing

bath may be used, whilst if it be rich in the chloride it must be of

proportionate strength."



It will now be seen that the proportion of chloride to albumen has

to settle the point. We next have to consider the time during which

the silver should be in contact with the paper when the floating is

commenced. Let us take the case of a strong silver solution, and

consider the action that will follow. Immediately the paper is placed in

contact with the solution, silver chloride is formed, and the amount of

the silver nitrate in the layer of fluid in immediate contact with the

surface being scarcely diminished by the formation of silver chloride,

the albuminate is formed almost simultaneously, forming a film which is

to a great extent impermeable to the liquid. But even before this layer

is coagulated, the next layer of chloride will have been formed, so that

we may say we have one layer of albuminate and chloride of silver, and

one layer of chloride of silver alone.



The further penetration of the silver solution will be very slow; hence,

for fully saturating both the albumen and the salt with silver, the time

of flotation must be prolonged. For some purposes, however, this is not

necessary, as will be seen presently.



Next let us trace the action of a weak solution, not weak enough to

dissolve the albumen off the paper, but of the minimum strength. The

solution, as before, would immediately form the silver chloride, but

before the albumen had coagulated at the surface, the solution would

penetrate to the interior of the film, and then the formation of the

albuminate would proceed nearly equally throughout the whole of the

interior. Evidently, then, in this case, the contact of the silver

solution would be less prolonged than in the former case. If the

floating be prolonged the silver solution in the interior will become

weakened, and partially dissolve the albumen and be carried by the

water into the interior of the paper; it will also partially dissolve

off the surface, and a negative printed on such a paper would have all

the appearance of being dead in lustre, and existing in the paper itself

instead of on the surface.



We may thus summarize:--



1. A paper floated on a strong solution may require long floating.



2. A paper floated on a weak solution requires short floating.



3. And the strength of the solution may be between the 30 grains and

80 grains to the ounce of silver according to the amount of soluble

chloride dissolved in the albumen on the paper when the negative is

really good as regards opacity and delicacy.



The knowledge of the amount of chloride in the paper supplied by dealers

has to be arrived at somehow, and the following method will answer. Cut

up a quarter sheet of the paper into small pieces, and place them in a

couple of ounces of methylated spirit. This will dissolve out most of

the chloride, and should be decanted off. Another two ounces of spirit

should be added to the paper, and, after thoroughly soaking, should be

decanted off, and added to the other spirit. The spirit containing the

chloride may then be placed in a glass vessel standing in hot water,

when it will evaporate and leave the chloride behind. It may be weighed;

but since it is better to know how much silver chloride (AgCl) would be

formed, the residue should be dissolved in a few drops of water, and a

little silver nitrate added. The silver chloride will be precipitated,

and should be carefully washed with water, and then be filtered, the

paper being opened out and dried before the fire on filter paper. The

chloride is then detached and weighed; 3-1/2 grains of silver chloride

would show that a weak bath should be used, whilst 10 grains would show

that a strong bath was required.



With most brands of albumenized paper directions are issued as to the

best strength of silver nitrate solution for sensitizing, and a fair

estimate of the chloride present can be gained from such directions.



A weak solution loses much of its strength by each sheet of paper

floated, much more proportionally, in fact, than a strong solution,

since the same amount of fluid is absorbed by the paper in each case,

whilst the amount of silver abstracted from the _whole_ is also equal,

which reduces the strength per ounce more with the former than with

the latter. A weak sensitizing solution, therefore, requires much

more attention than a strong one: crystals of silver nitrate must be

constantly added to the former. In practice and for general work, then,

we recommend a moderately strong bath, the method of making up of which

we shall describe.



To make up 2 pints of solution with a strength of 50 grains to the

ounce, we shall require 2,000 grains of silver nitrate. This is

carefully weighed out in the scales, a piece of _filter paper being

placed in each pan_. By adopting this plan freedom from all impurities

that may cling to the pans will be avoided, and the silver nitrate

will be perfectly pure. Place the silver salt in a large clean bottle,

and add half-a-pint of water to it, and shake it to dissolve it. The

best water for the purpose is distilled water; but filtered rain, pure

spring, or river water answers well. If the water contain any chlorides,

it will be shown by a milkiness due to a formation of silver chloride.

This must be filtered out when the remaining pint and a-half of water

is added. The solution is now ready for use, and, being of the simplest

character, is not to be excelled, though the addition of some soluble

salts may be advantageous, particularly in dry climates or in very dry

weather. Such salts are found in sodium nitrate, or ammonium nitrate, as

much as equal weights of either of these substances being added. Thus

our formula would stand as follows were these additions made:--



_Original Solution._



    1.--Silver nitrate           50 grains

        Water                     1 ounce





_Modified Solution._



    2.--Silver nitrate           50 grains

        Ammonium nitrate or

          sodium nitrate         50   "

        Water                     1 ounce



The reason of the addition of the ammonium or sodium nitrate is that

prints are better obtained on paper which is not absolutely free from

water. When very dry, the liberated chlorine (see page 32) is apt to

attack the albuminate, whereas it is deprived of much of its activity

when it is able to be absorbed by water, which, in the presence of

light, is decomposed into hydrochloric acid and oxygen.[10]



Hydrochloric acid can attack the silver nitrate present in the pores

of the paper, and produce fresh silver chloride. If the paper were

quite dry, the liberated chlorine would scarcely be able to attack

even the silver. Moisture, though very little, is desirable. In the

excessively dry climate of India, &c., in the summer, one or other of

these deliquescent salts should be invariably present for the purpose

indicated, unless fuming be resorted to.



The sensitizing bath should also never be allowed to be acid with nitric

acid, since the resulting prints would invariably be poor.



The best way of securing this neutral state is by keeping a little

carbonate of silver at the bottom of the bottle in which the solution is

kept. A few drops of a solution of sodium carbonate added to the bottle

over-night will secure this. The reason why nitric acid is to be avoided

is shown by placing a print in dilute nitric acid. It is well known that

darkened silver chloride is unaffected by it; but the print will be

found to change colour, and to become duller and redder than if washed

in water alone. The nitric acid evidently attacks the albumen. Nitric

acid decomposes the carbonate of silver (which, be it remembered, is an

insoluble body), forming silver nitrate, and liberating carbonic acid.[11]



Alum in the printing bath has also been recommended for preventing the

bath from discolouring, and it is effective in that it hardens the

surface of the albumen; but the ordinary explanation of its effect is

defective. If a solution of common alum be added to the silver nitrate

we get silver sulphate (which is best out of the bath, and it is

slightly soluble in the solution), and aluminium nitrate is formed.[12]



The same effect would be produced if aluminium nitrate were added to the

bath solution. We, however, give a means of adding it as recommended by

some writers. When filtering the solution, put a small lump of alum in

the filter paper, and pour the solution over it, or add one grain of

alum to every ounce of solution, and then filter.









CHAPTER IV.



HOW TO KEEP THE SENSITIZING BATH IN ORDER.





Experience tells us, however strong we may make the bath solution to

coagulate the albumen on the paper, that a certain amount of organic

matter will always be carried into it. At first this is not apparent,

since it remains colourless in the solution; but after a time, after

floating a few sheets of paper, the organic silver compound gradually

decomposes, and the solution becomes of a brown or red tint, and if

paper were floated on it in this condition there would be a dark surface

and uneven sensitizing. It is, therefore, necessary to indicate the

various means that may be employed to get rid of this impurity. The

earliest, if not one of the best, is by the addition of white China

clay, which is known in commerce as kaolin. A teaspoonful is placed in

the bottle containing the solution, and well shaken up; the organic

matter adheres to it, and precipitates to the bottom, and the liquid can

be filtered through filter-paper or washed cotton-wool, when it will

be found decolourized. Another mode of getting the liquid out of the

bottle is to syphon it off by any syphon arrangement, and this prevents

a waste in the solution from the absorption of the filtering medium. The

accompanying arrangement (fig. 4) will be found useful for the purpose,

and can be applied to other solutions where decantation is necessary. A

is a wide-mouthed bottle holding the solution. B is a cork fitting the

mouth, in which two holes have been bored to fit the two tubes, D and C,

which are bent to the form shown. When the kaolin has subsided to the

bottom, air is forced by the mouth into the bottle through C, the liquid

rises over the bend of the tube D, and syphons off to the level of the

bottom of the tube inserted into the liquid, provided the end of D,

outside the bottle, comes below it.



[Illustration: _Fig._ 4.]



[Illustration: _Fig._ 5.]



To bend a tube, a common gas flame is superior to a Bunsen burner. The

tube is placed in the bright part of the flame in the position shown; by

this means a good length of it gets heated, and a gentle bend is made

without choking the bore, which would be the case were a point of a

flame used.



Another method of purifying the solution is by adding a few drops of

hydrochloric (muriatic) acid to it. Chloride of silver is formed, and

when well shaken up, carries down with it most of the organic matter,

but leaves the bath acid from the formation of nitric acid.[13] This

must be neutralized unless a little silver carbonate is left at the

bottom of the bottle as described at page 20. A camphor solution may

also be added for the same purpose. Make a saturated solution of camphor

in spirits of wine, and add a couple of drachms to the solution, and

shake well up. The camphor will collect the albumen, and it can be

filtered out. In case the first dose does not decolourize it, another

one must be added.



Another plan is to add potassium permanganate (permanganate of potash)

to it, till such time as the solution takes a faint permanent rose

tint. The theory is that the organic matter is oxidized by the oxygen

liberated from the permanganate, and falls to the bottom. It is not

strictly true, however, and the solution will never be as free from

organic matter as when the other methods are employed.



The final and best method is to add a small quantity of sodium carbonate

(say 5 grains), and expose it to daylight. When the organic matter

becomes oxidized at the expense of the silver nitrate, the metallic

silver with the oxidized organic matter will fall to the bottom. This

plan answers admirably when time is no object, but in dull weather the

action is slow. When once the precipitation fairly commences it goes on

quickly, and if a little freshly precipitated metallic silver be left at

bottom of the bottle the action is much more rapid. This is a wrinkle

worth remembering in all photographic operations where precipitation is

resorted to.



We have hitherto supposed that the only contamination of the bath is

organic matter, but it must be borne in mind that each sheet of paper

floated on the solution transfers a certain amount of nitrate of the

alkali[14] with which the albumen is salted.



[Illustration: _Fig._ 6.]



It will thus be seen that in an old bath there will be no need to add

the soluble nitrates given in page 17, since they will be already

formed. When they are in excess the best plan is to precipitate the

silver by some means,[15] but we select one which is easy of application,

since it requires no watching. Evaporate the solution to half its

bulk, and slightly acidify it with nitric acid (10 drops to the pint

of solution will suffice); throw some ordinary granulated zinc into

the jar or bottle containing it; the silver will now be rapidly thrown

down in the metallic state, and in the course of two or three hours

the action will be complete. Next carefully pour off all the fluid as

close as possible to the residue. Pick out all the lumps of zinc, and

add a little dilute hydrochloric acid to dissolve up all the small

particles of zinc which may be amongst the precipitated silver. Filter

the solution away, and wash the residue once or twice with water. Take

out the filter paper, and dry it before a fire, or in an oven, and then

detach the silver, and transfer it to a small crucible, which place,

with its contents, over a Bunsen burner or spirit lamp flame till it is

red hot. The heat will destroy all organic matter, leaving a residue of

carbonous matter behind, which, after subsequent operations, will be

eliminated by filtration. Next cover the silver with nitric acid,[16]

and in an evaporating dish slightly warm it over a spirit lamp or

Bunsen burner. Red fumes will appear, and when all action has ceased,

more acid must be added till such a time that very nearly (but not

quite) all the silver is dissolved up. Then evaporate off all the fluid

and allow it to cool, when water can be added to such an extent that

it is _over strength_ for the bath. Now measure the whole bulk of the

solution in a glass measure, and test by the argentometer for strength.

An argentometer is, in reality, an instrument for taking the specific

gravity of a liquid. It is as shown in the figure. A B is a glass tube,

inside of which is a graduated scale showing grains; C is a hollow

glass cylinder, which has a little glass ball filled with mercury. When

immersed in water, the instrument sinks till the scale reads 0--that

is, A B is deeply immersed. When any soluble salt is dissolved in the

water, the stem rises further. If the soluble salt be silver nitrate,

the scale is made to read grains per ounce. It is then evident, if the

bath contains any other soluble salt besides the nitrate of silver, the

readings will be untrustworthy. Supposing you have a total quantity of

10-1/4 ounces of solution, and the argentometer tells you it is of a

strength of 105 grains to the ounce, you must make a small calculation

to see how much water you must add. In 10-1/4 ounces of solution there

will be 10-1/4 x 105 or 1076-1/4 grains of silver nitrate. If you want

to make the bath 40 grains to the ounce, you must divide this quantity

by 40, which is very nearly 27. The original amount of fluid (10-1/4

ounces), when deducted from this number of (27) ounces, will give you

the amount (16-3/4 ounces) of water that is to be added to give you a

bath of the required strength. When the water is added, the solution

should be filtered from the carbonaceous matter, and the bath, after

neutralizing with sodium carbonate, will be ready for use.









CHAPTER V.



APPLYING THE SILVERING SOLUTION TO THE ALBUMENIZED PAPER.





As each piece of paper takes somewhere about five minutes to sensitize

and hang up to dry, it is evident that the larger the piece of paper

sensitised the greater will be the saving in time in this operation.

Practically a whole sheet of paper, which is about 22 inches by 18, is

the maximum ordinary size, whilst it may be convenient to float a piece

as small as 3-1/4 by 4-1/4. There is not much difficulty in floating

either one or the other if ordinary care be taken, but it is no use

disguising the fact that large sheets are sometimes faultily sensitized

even by experienced hands, if the solution be not in a proper state. The

great enemy to success is the formation of bubbles on the surface of the

solution, and if it be at all contaminated with organic matter they are

more liable to be met with than if the bath be new. It may be taken as a

maxim that no paper should be floated if, to commence with, the bath be

not purified. A flat dish of about 2-1/2 inches in height, and an inch

larger in breadth and length than the paper to be floated, is used, and

the solution poured in to a depth of 1/2 inch. The paper is grasped by

the two hands as shown at page 10, so that a convex albumen surface is

formed downwards, which is placed diagonally across the dish and lowered

on to the surface of the solution; the hands are at the same time

separated outwards, so that the whole surface of the paper is caused

to float on it without any arrest. By this means all air is forced out

before the paper, and no bubbles should be beneath. To make assurance

double sure, the paper is raised from the corners which were not grasped

by the hands, and if by any chance a small bubble should be found, it

is immediately broken by the point of a clean quill pen or glass rod.

Before floating the paper the surface of the solution should be examined

for scum or bubbles, both of which may be removed by passing a strip of

clean blotting-paper across it. The dish employed should be scrupulously

clean, and in cold weather it is a good plan to warm both it and the

solution before the fire previous to use. In warm weather, the albumen

of the paper may be in a very horny condition, which increases the

liability to form bubbles. The writers have found that if the sheet of

paper be exposed to the steam passing from a kettle of boiling water for

a few seconds (moving it so that every portion shall come in contact

with it) just before sensitising, the surface becomes more tractable,

and in a better condition for sensitizing; keeping the paper in a moist

atmosphere effects the same end.



The length of time for floating the paper depends on the subjects to be

printed, _but, as a rule_, three minutes with the 50-grain bath will

be found to answer for the majority of negatives. When the proper time

has elapsed, a corner of the paper is raised from the solution by means

of a glass rod, and grasped by the thumb and forefinger of the right

hand. It is then raised _very slowly_ from off the solution till another

corner is clear, when that is grasped by the forefinger and thumb of the

left hand; and it is finally withdrawn entirely, and drained a minute

from the lowest corner into the dish. It is next hung up to dry by a

corner which should be fastened to an American clip (fig. 7) suspended

from a line stretched across the dark room, taking care to keep the

corner which last left the solution the lowest. A piece of _clean_

blotting-paper about one inch long by 1/2 an inch wide is brought in

contact with this latter corner, and adheres to it from the moisture.

This collects the draining from the paper whilst drying, and prevents a

loss of silver, since it can subsequently be detached and placed amongst

the residues for burning.



[Illustration: _Fig._ 7.]



[Illustration: _Fig._ 8.]



There is another mode of floating large sheets of paper, which is

sometimes recommended. One corner is turned up about a quarter of an

inch. This is held by the forefinger and thumb of the left hand, and the

opposite corner of the diagonal held by the right hand. The first corner

is brought on the solution near the opposite corner of the dish to that

towards which it will eventually be near. The sheet, having assumed a

convex form, is drawn by the left hand across the dish, the right hand

being gradually turned to allow the whole surface to come slowly in

contact with the solution. Air-bubbles are said to be avoided by this

means, though for our own part we see no practical advantage in it over

the last method.



[Illustration: _Fig._ 9.]



Some operators also, when lifting the paper from the dish, pass it

over a glass rod placed as in the figure, in order to get rid of all

superfluous fluid from the surface. This is a poor substitute for

withdrawing the paper slowly from the dish, since capillary attraction

is much more effective and even in its action than this rude mechanical

means. By those who do not possess patience, however, it may be tried.

Some practical photographers also "blot off" the excess of silver,

but this is a dangerous practice unless there is a certainty that no

"anti-chlor" has been used in preparing the blotting-paper. For our own

part we recommend the usual mode of draining the paper. When surface

dry, it can be dried in a drying box. The following is a kind which has

been adopted by one eminent photographer, and is excellent in principle.



Over a flat and closed galvanized iron bath erect a cupboard. Fig. 10

gives the elevation, and fig. 11 the section. A is the bath, D the

cupboard, which may conveniently be closed with a roller shutter,[17] B,

passing over _c c_, and is weighted by a bar of lead, so as to nearly

balance the weight of the shutter when closed. A couple of Bunsen

gas-burners, E E, heat the water in A; the steam generated is carried

up the flue F, which also carries off the products of the combustion of

the gas. The paper may be suspended from laths tacked at the top of the

cupboard by means of American clips.



[Illustration: _Fig._ 10.]



[Illustration: _Fig._ 11.]









CHAPTER VI.



WASHED SENSITIVE PAPER.





For some classes of work sensitized paper may be washed with advantage

previous to drying, and there is much economy in this plan, particularly

in hot weather, since it keeps of a purer white for a much longer

period than where the silver nitrate is allowed to dry on the surface.

It may not be out of place to call attention to the action of silver

nitrate on the paper. If a stick of lunar caustic be applied to the

skin when dried, there is a peculiar burning effect produced, and even

in the dark the cuticle becomes discoloured, though not black. In the

albumenized paper we have albumen and the gelatine sizing, and these

substances behave somewhat like the skin. The gelatine particularly will

become oxidized at the expense of the silver, a reddish organic oxide

being formed; and again, if the silver nitrate be alkaline or strictly

neutral, we have the same action occurring as when we precipitate

metallic silver by means of an alkali, and an organic body such as sugar

of milk. The gelatine takes the place of the latter. When the free

silver nitrate is removed, the tendency for the spontaneous darkening

of the paper is much diminished, since the chloride and albuminate of

silver are much less readily reduced than the nitrate. The following

plan is adopted for washing the paper:--The paper, after floating,

is drawn twice rapidly through a dish of rain or distilled water,

and, unless some other substance which can absorb chlorine be added

to the last wash water, care should be taken not to soak out all the

free nitrate, as then the paper would produce flat prints. It is then

hung up to dry as before. Immediately before use it must be fumed with

ammonia, in order that the prints may be "plucky," and free from that

peculiar speckiness of surface which is known to the silver printer as

"measles." We can readily trace the "measles" to their source. Suppose

all free silver nitrate is washed away, and the paper be then exposed to

light, the chloride is rapidly converted into subchloride, and chlorine

is given off (see page 5); if there be nothing to absorb it at once it

will attack the albuminate, which is blackened at the same time, and

fresh chloride will be formed in little minute spots. These discolour,

and are of different tint to the rest of the print, and give rise to

the appearance of measles. This, of course, is not so marked when a

little free silver nitrate is left in the paper; but as what is removed

is principally removed from the surface, it may still be unpleasantly

discernible. Fuming obviates it entirely if properly performed, for

chlorine and ammonia combine to form finally ammonium chloride, a

neutral and inactive salt.



Any other chlorine absorber may be substituted; thus citric acid,

potassium nitrite, and many others are effective, and cause vigorous

prints to be produced. Perhaps the easiest way of giving the paper the

necessary amount of ammonia is that recommended by Colonel Wortley. This

is to place overnight the pads of the printing-frame, if they be of

felt, into a closed box in which is placed a saucer containing a couple

of drachms of liquor ammoniae, and to withdraw them as required for the

printing-frames. The pads will be thoroughly impregnated with the vapour

of ammonia, and a couple or more prints, in succession, may be made

before it is necessary to change them.



The ordinary method of fuming is that used in America. Hearn describes

a box, which is very convenient and simple in construction. He says:

"Take any common wooden box, large enough for the purpose, and make a

door of suitable size for it, which, when shut, will totally exclude

all light. Make a false bottom in this about six inches, or so, from

the real one, and perforate it with holes of about the same size that

a gimlet would make. These holes should be very numerous, and at the

centre there should be, if anything, a smaller number of them, because

the saucer containing the liquor ammonia is generally placed at the

centre of the real bottom of the box."



For our own part we dislike the false bottom as constructed, and

recommend one of fine gauze, and, instead of placing half-an-ounce of

ammonia in the saucer as Hearn directs, we prefer to soak half-a-dozen

sheets of blotting-paper in ammonium chloride solution, about 20 grains

to the ounce, and the same number of sheets soaked in lime water; one

sheet of each are placed together, and ammonia is liberated by double

decomposition; calcium chloride being also formed.



This method is excellent in hot, dry weather, since it imparts a certain

amount of moisture to the paper. In damp weather it is a good plan to

dry the vapour by sprinkling on the gauze calcium chloride, which will

rapidly absorb the aqueous vapour, and will allow the ammonia to pass

on unimpeded. The sheets of paper are held at the top of the box by

American clips, suspended from laths about three inches apart, and it

is not a bad plan to fasten a lath on to their bottom edge by the same

means, to do away with their curling. To fume a single piece of paper

it may be pinned up to the inside of the top of the lid of a box, and a

drachm of ammonia sprinkled on cotton wool distributed at the bottom.

The point to be attended to is that the fuming shall be even, and it is

evident that the ammonia should rise equally from any part of the bottom

of the box. In the plan of the box given above, the bottom of the sheet

is apt to get a little more ammonia than the top. The time of fuming

depends on so many things that a rule can scarcely be given for it;

twenty minutes may be considered about the extreme limit.



If this sensitizing bath be acid, the time must evidently be longer than

when it is strictly neutral or slightly alkaline; and if the negative be

hard, it will require to be less fumed than if it be of a weak nature,

since the action of ammonia is to cause rapid darkening in the deep

shadows. In hot weather the fuming should be shorter than in cold, since

the ammonia volatilizes much more rapidly when the temperature is high.

On the whole, we recommend Colonel Wortley's plan of fuming the pads in

preference to fuming the paper.



Another mode of preserving the paper from discolouration is to add

citric acid to the printing bath, which is effective owing to the fact

given at page 32. The following formula is a good one, and has answered

with the writer. It is--



    Silver nitrate               50 grains

    Citric acid                  20   "

    Water                         1 ounce



The paper is floated for the ordinary length of time, when it is dried

thoroughly and placed between sheets of pure blotting-paper. It will

keep in its pristine state for months, if excluded from the air. It is

better to fume this paper strongly before use, or the toning becomes a

difficult matter.



Ordinary sensitized paper may be preserved for a considerable time if,

when dry, it is placed between sheets of blotting-paper saturated with a

solution of carbonate of soda, and dried.



Washed sensitized paper is also improved in sensitiveness by floating it

for a few seconds on--



    Citric acid                  20 grains

    Potassium nitrite            10   "

    Water                         1 ounce



It can be fumed, when dried, in the usual manner.



In the YEAR-BOOK OF PHOTOGRAPHY for 1880 Mr. A. Borland

recommends the following modification:--



He floats the paper on nitrate of silver, as usual, and after it has

drained surface dry, blots off any drops that may remain at the edges,

and then floats the _back_ of the paper for about three minutes on the

following bath:--



    Nitrate of soda               1 ounce

    Distilled water              16 ounces



This is rendered slightly acid by a little solution of _freshly_

prepared citric acid in water. The degree of acidity is regulated by

litmus paper (the blue specimen), which should be slightly reddened

by it. After this solution has been mixed about ten minutes, it is

filtered, and the paper floated. Mr. Borland says the paper keeps well,

and prints the same as ordinary paper, and any tone may be produced.









CHAPTER VII.



CUTTING PAPER.





We have often come across operators who have no really definite plan on

which they cut up their paper for a day's work, and they have little

idea of the most economical place of dividing the sheets. The following

remarks by Mr. Hearn, which appeared in the PHOTOGRAPHIC NEWS,

1874, will be useful to the printer, and, being so extremely well

described, we take the liberty of reproducing them.



"In cutting up the paper for printing, due regard should be given to

the materials employed. In the first place, the fingers should be free

from anything that will stain or soil the paper, and they should never

touch the _silvered_ side, but always the _back_. The hands should be

perfectly dry, free even from any perspiration, for if this is not

strictly regarded in the handling of the paper, 'finger stains' will

appear on those parts of the paper with which the fingers come in

contact. To guard against this, a rough towel should be suspended in a

convenient place, and the hands wiped upon it as often as may be found

necessary--say once in every five or ten minutes. An ivory newspaper

cutter, about eight inches long and an inch wide, together with a

suitable sized pair of shears, will be all of the instruments necessary.



"In cutting the paper for very large prints, such as 13 by 16, 14 by 18,

16 by 20, &c., the beginner had best (to obtain the right size) lay over

the sensitive paper the proper sized mat that is to be placed over the

print when finished, and then cut accordingly. Considerable paper can be

saved in this way, and printed in card size.



"There should always be an assortment of different sized mats in the

printing room; one of each size will do, which should be kept expressly

for this purpose.



"In cutting the paper for an 11 by 14 print, the length of the sheet

is generally placed before the printer, and the paper bent over to the

further edge of the sheet, and then creased, and thus cut into two equal

pieces, one of which can be used for the contemplated print. I would

recommend that instead of taking exactly one half of the sheet of paper,

as described above, to take about _an inch more_ than the half, so as to

allow for any slight tear that may happen along the edges of the paper

during the washing, toning, &c., and also so as to be sure of having the

paper wide enough for the different sized mats.



"I have seen some nice prints printed upon the exact half of a sheet of

paper, which, when taken from the final washing (and the edges trimmed,

being slightly torn), were then too narrow to be covered with the proper

sized mats, and had to be rejected; whereas, if in cutting this paper

allowance had been made for this final trimming, the prints would have

been saved. The rest of the sheet can be cut very well into sixteen or

eighteen carte pieces.



"In cutting cabinets out of a sheet, fifteen is all that can very well

be obtained, and to get that number lay the sheet on a wide table, or

printing bench (with the length of it running from right to left), and

divide it into three equal parts. By laying the cabinet glass on these

strips of paper, and cutting the paper a little wider than the glass,

five cabinets can be obtained from each strip, and fifteen out of the

whole. These pieces will be plenty large enough, both in length and

width; besides, this is a very convenient and economical way to cut the

paper without waste.



[Illustration:



                          22 inches

               +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

               |     |     |     |     |     |

               |     |     |     |     |     |

               +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

    18 inches. |     |     |     |     |     |

               |     |     |     |     |     |

               +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

               |     |4-2/5|  6  |     |     |

               |     |inch.| inch|     |     |

               +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

                         _Fig._ 12.]



"By a glance at the cut (fig. 12) it will be seen that the size of the

pieces will be 4-2/5 by 6 inches, and consequently there will be more

room for the width than there will be for the length. The edges of the

width side of the paper can be trimmed a little, as there is usually

some little tear, or some other defect, that can thus advantageously be

got rid of. Often, when there are only a few cabinets to be printed,

I take a quarter-sheet, and bend over the length of it to about

three-quarters of an inch of the opposite side, crease it, and then

cut with the paper-knife. You thus obtain a large and small piece; the

smaller one of these can be cut into four cards, and the larger one

can be cut in two, and thus obtain two generous size cabinets; or the

printer can use the larger of the two pieces for printing the 4 by 4

size. This is the way I obtain my 4 by 4 pieces when I wish them.



"The beginner must remember that in bending over the _length_ of a sheet

of paper 18 by 22 inches in size, the divided paper will be 11 by 18

inches in size, which is termed, in the language of the printing room,

half-sheet.



"To obtain the quarter-sheet, the _length of the half-sheet_ is cut

equally in two pieces, and then the size will be 9 by 11 inches.



"A glance at fig. 13 will show that either a generous size 4 by 4, or a

couple of nice cabinet pieces, together with four cartes, can be easily

obtained from a quarter-sheet.



"To obtain thirty-two cartes, quarter the sheet, and divide each quarter

into eight equal pieces.



[Illustration:



                 9 inches.

               +-----+------+

               |     | 4x4  |

               |Cab. |      |

               |     | Cab. |

               +-----+------+

    11 inches. |     |      |

               |  1  |  2   |

               +-----+------+

               |     |      |

               |  3  |  4   |

               +-----+------+



                _Fig._ 13.]



[Illustration:



                    9 inches.

               +-----+-----+-----+

               |     |     |     |

               |     | 3x3 |     |

               +-----+-----+-----+

    11 inches. |     |     |     |

               |     |     |     |

               +-----+-----+-----+

               |  3x9 inches,    |

               |  Stereoscope.   |

               +-----+-----+-----+



                   _Fig._ 14.]



"To obtain thirty-six pieces out of a sheet, it is necessary, for

convenience, to first quarter it, and then divide it into three equal

strips (fig. 14) taken from the _length_ of the paper. The pieces, as

thus cut, will measure 3-2/3 by 9 inches, which will answer admirably

for the stereoscopic size. Each one of these strips of paper can be

cut into three good sized cartes, making nine out of a quarter, and

thirty-six out of a whole sheet.



"Forty-two cartes can be obtained very neatly by laying the sheet before

you (fig. 4), and dividing the length into seven equal parts; when done,

each strip should measure 3-1/7 by 18 inches in size. The whole number

of pieces will be forty-two. It will be seen that the size of the carte

pieces (3 by 3-1/7 inches) only allows very little room for waste paper

in trimming after printing, and thus it will be found necessary to

exercise some care in placing these pieces on the negative for printing.



[Illustration:



                             18 inches.

               +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

               |     |     |     |     |     |     |

               |     |     |     |     |     |     |

               +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

               |     |     |     |     |     |     |

               |     |     |     |     |     |     |

               +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

               |     |     |     |     |     |     |

               |     |     |     |     |     |     |

               +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

    22 inches. |     |     |     |     |     |     |

               |     |     |     |     |     |     |

               +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

               |     |     |     |     |     |     |

               |     |     |     |     |     |     |

               +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

               |     |     |     |     |     |     |

               |     |     |     |     |     |     |

               +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

               |     |     |     |     |     |     |

               |     |     |     |     |     |     |

               +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+



                             _Fig._ 15.]



"To obtain the forty-two carte pieces from the sheet without waste,

great care is required in sensitizing the paper to prevent tearing, and

also to prevent silver from getting on the back of it; in cutting it

either the shears or the paper-knife should be used with care. _Do not

tear the paper with the hands_, as is very often done, especially when

the printer is in a hurry.



"In making out the above, I have considered the sheet of paper to be 18

by 22 inches in size, but it is seldom that the sheet measures _exactly_

this, for the _length_ often measures from one quarter to one inch more,

but never less, while the width is invariably the same. When this is the

case, a little better margin is allowed in cutting the sheet up, which

is a good thing, especially when a large number of small pieces are

to be obtained from the sheet. Forty-two pieces is all that should be

obtained from a sheet of paper which measures 18 by 22 (or 18 by 22-1/2,

&c.) inches, because the pieces of paper are now as small as they

should be with safe results to the prints, on account of bad edges, &c.,

which it is often necessary to trim after printing. There is a way to

obtain forty-eight, and even fifty-two pieces of paper from the sheet,

but I would not advise any of my readers to try to obtain that quantity,

as there are many disadvantages connected with it that more than

neutralize the benefits. The paper is sometimes cut up to the _exact

carte size_, and then printed up as it is, thus saving the trimming of

the prints after printing. This is, perhaps (?), a good way, but for

the beginner it is very risky, because the paper will have to be placed

_exactly on the negative_, or else the print will be worthless. Even to

the experienced printer this is very difficult, because the greatest

care and skill are required to do it _as it should be done_; then the

_inexperienced_ printer could not hope to do it successfully."









CHAPTER VIII.



PRINTING-FRAMES.





[Illustration: _Fig._ 16.]



There are a variety of printing-frames in the market, each of which may

have something to recommend it; and yet, as a rule, the simpler and

more uniform the frames are, the more handy are they for the printer,

since he rapidly becomes accustomed to handling them, and knows their

peculiarities. The simplest pattern is one introduced by Meagher, as

shown in fig. 16. The negative rests on india-rubber strips which line

a framework of its exact size, and a folding back, as shown, covers

it. The paper is pressed on to the negative by a pad, and the back on

that by means of two brass springs. This is a very excellent pattern

for cabinet pictures and cartes, but we can scarcely recommend it for

anything larger, since even if it were possible to supply sufficient

pressure to secure proper contact of the paper, the negative would be in

danger of being cracked.



[Illustration: _Fig._ 17.]



For all sizes above cabinet, the printing frame as given in the figure

is the best. The construction will be seen at once. In the front part of

the frame is a piece of thick plate glass (depending for its thickness

on the size of the frame). On this the negative rests, and over this

again are the necessary pads and backboard, which is clamped down by

means of two cross-bars, on which springs are fixed. An increase of

pressure may be given by increasing the thickness of the pad (which

may consist of smooth felt) next the negative, or by sheets of thick

blotting-paper quite free from all folding marks.



Sometimes the back of the frame is hinged in three pieces,[18] and this

is almost essential for large prints (say 2 feet by 1 foot 6 inches),

since every part of the picture should be capable of examination during

the progress in printing. With a simple single hinged backboard this is

impossible.



[Illustration: _Fig._ 14.]



[Illustration: _Fig._ 15.]



When large negatives are to be printed, the plate glass front should

always have at least an inch clear all round. For smaller negatives

(say 12 by 10 and under) half-an-inch clear is sufficient. This allows

a certain latitude in the position of the negative, and enables the

fingers to get at the paper without inconvenience. In the frames in

which the front of the negative is unsupported this cannot be the

case, and for this reason (as well as those given above) they are not

recommended for large prints.









CHAPTER IX.



PREPARING A LANDSCAPE NEGATIVE FOR PRINTING.





Landscape negatives are rarely ever in perfect harmony for printing,

and much may be done by judicious doctoring of the best of negatives

to secure the best of prints. With moderate negatives it is absolutely

essential that they should be improved. Let us take the example of a

hard landscape negative, which if printed so that the deep shades should

show detail, would show none in the high lights.



A piece of thin tissue paper (the kind known as _papier minerale_ is

the best), of the size of the negative, is damped evenly with a sponge,

and carefully pasted on the back of the negative. The negative is then

held up to the light, and the high lights carefully traced with a

faint line by means of a pencil. These are then cut out by means of a

sharp penknife, and a trial print taken in the shade. If it be found

that the shadows still print too deeply when the detail in the high

light is visible, another thickness of tissue paper may be applied,

cutting out this time, perhaps, the high lights and the half tones.

Another trial print will show whether the object is attained. If still

not satisfactory, crayon in powder from the scrapings of a stick of

crayon, or blacklead, may be applied by a stump to the parts requiring

it. It may happen that the effects of the tissue paper may be seen in

the print by the light penetrating beneath it, and causing the edges

of the shadows to print too dark. In this case, which may arise from

the negative being taken on a thin glass plate, the parts covering the

high lights, and which were cut out, should be indented with a jagged

edge such as this, the dotted line showing where the cut would come if

it had been cut out in a clean sharp line. Another mode which we have

sometimes found successful, though care is required in employing it, is

to coat the back of the plate with a very dilute emulsion of a quarter

the ordinary consistency, then to expose it, through the negative, and

develop with one of the ordinary alkaline developers (we prefer the

ferrous oxalate),[19] and then fix. This last film may be protected with

a layer of albumen 1 part of albumen to 25 parts of water. By this means

the shadows become subdued and the contrasts diminished, and there is no

danger of any sharp demarcations in the shades being apparent.



[Illustration: _Fig._ 16.]



There is one way of improving a hard negative, if taken on a gelatine

plate, which would probably be dangerous in the hands of a novice, but

which is most effective when used with skill and judgment, but must be

applied before the plate is varnished. One of the most popular methods

of reducing the density of an over-intensified gelatine negative is with

a very weak solution of perchloride of iron. The writers have found that

the reducing agent may be applied locally. Let us suppose the case of a

figure in a landscape in a light dress, which produces a white patch in

the print. The negative should be placed in a dish of water, then lifted

up until the part to be reduced is just above the level of the water;

a solution of perchloride of iron should then be applied to the part

with a camel's-hair pencil, care being taken that it does not spread

over the edges or run down the negative. When this is found to be taking

place, the plate should be allowed to fall into the water; it can then

be lifted again, and the operation proceeded with. It is not easy to

give any strength for the solution of perchloride of iron, but it is

best to begin weak, and strengthen as required. A saturated solution has

been used in an obstinate case without any mischief being done, but this

required very careful watching.



For landscapes, Mr. England has successfully used a strong solution

of cyanide of potassium with the same object. He moistens the parts

of the gelatine plates which require reduction with water applied by

a paint-brush, and afterwards, with another, applies the cyanide. The

reduction can be watched as it progresses, and by a judicious use of the

brush no sharp line of demarcation between the reduced and unaltered

parts is visible.



With a thin negative the tissue paper may be applied as before, only

in this case the shadows are left bare, the half tones have one

thickness of tissue paper over them, the highest lights two or three. An

emulsion may be used in this case as well, only instead of fixing the

transparency which is at the back, the precipitated silver is dissolved

away by nitric acid, and the developer applied again. By this means,

the density in the high lights may be doubled if required. It must

again be repeated, that in all cases the use of emulsion requires great

care, seeing that if any get on the varnished surface, markings are

sure to occur. It sometimes happens, especially with gelatine plates,

that the corners of one side of a negative print too dark. This is very

visible in sky and sea pictures. The careful application of blacklead

on the tissue paper on the back of the plate may often save a beautiful

negative that would be otherwise useless.



In most landscape negatives there is a want of atmosphere (by which

we mean the haze always present in the air) in the distance and middle

distances, and we have found that by applying one piece of tissue-paper

to the back of the negative to cover the middle distance and distances,

and another to cover the distance alone, atmospheric effect is produced.

The effect of atmosphere is usually shown by grey tones as compared

with those of the foreground, and the greyer they are the more distant

should the objects be away in nature. This effect is accomplished by the

tissue-paper. It must, however, be remembered that the lights of distant

objects are greyer than those of the foreground, hence the tissue paper

must be used with judgment to prevent the distant lights from appearing

too white. This sometimes is effected by giving _the lights in the

foreground_ a covering of tissue paper. We very much doubt if there

exists any landscape negative which would not be improved by the use of

tissue paper, since photography often tends to do away with atmosphere.

We have, in some cases, strengthened the high lights on the film side

with the paint-brush and Prussian blue. This requires skill, and should

be done very sparingly. It may be objected that when these artifices

are resorted to, that the photograph must of necessity fail in regard

to truthfulness. The answer to this objection is quite easy to give.

If a photograph were true in itself, they should never be resorted to,

but since it always falls short of the truth, it is quite legitimate to

give it the effect that a perfect process would do, by which we mean one

in which the intensity of the negative is exactly proportional to the

intensity of the light producing it.



It has been shown in the PHOTOGRAPHIC NEWS of 1877, that the

gradations of a negative are never perfect, and the use of the tissue

paper, &c., makes it more nearly in accord with nature.



These remarks, of course, have reference only to what we might call "a

good printing negative;" the advisability of doctoring poor negatives

is scarcely open to argument. Improve as much as you like, but be very

careful not to overdo it.









CHAPTER X.



PRINTING THE LANDSCAPE PICTURE.





A trial print from a negative should first of all be taken, to enable

the operator to gauge as to how much is required to be done to it.

A piece of sensitized paper of the exact size of the plate is taken

and examined by transmitted light in the dark room. If there be any

appearance of markings due to bubbles, or of star-like metallic spots,

probably due to small particles of iron being in the albumen, it need

not be rejected altogether. Should there be any of these defects, the

sheet should be placed on one side to cut up into smaller sizes. We will

suppose that we are going to print a 15 by 12 negative. A strong frame

(of the description given at page 44) must be employed, and the thick

plate glass carefully freed from all dust, grit, or stains. The back

of the negative is then placed in contact with it, so as to occupy the

centre of the frame. The piece of sensitive paper is placed over it, and

the back placed loosely over it, and is then carried face downward into

the place where the printing is to be done, and the frame is placed face

downwards on the floor, and left for a few minutes. By this artifice the

paper takes the same degree of humidity as the atmosphere, and there

will be no danger of any cockling, and consequent (as it is termed) want

of contact, between the paper and the negative. This is only necessary

when there is any very great difference in the temperature of the drying

room and the place where the prints are to be exposed, and in some

establishments the difficulty is met by carrying the whole supply of

paper in a closed box into the latter place, and allowing it to absorb

any moisture that it can take up. In any case, the paper is next to be

placed in absolute contact with the negative, and we strongly recommend

the use of sheets of blotting-paper cut to the proper size (about four

thicknesses will be sufficient), and backed by a thick pad of closely

woven and very smooth felt. These latter are rather expensive, but are

very durable if ordinary care be taken of them. The blotting-paper is

useful in causing contact, and also because any accidental presence

of silver nitrate solution on the back of the sensitive paper is

immediately detected, and there is, consequently, no danger of carrying

it to another print and spoiling it, which it might do were it absorbed

by the felt pad.



The back of the frame is then placed _in situ_, and the hinged

cross-piece brought down and secured by the fasteners. If the springs be

sufficiently strong, the film of the negative should now be in absolute

contact with the sensitive paper. If there be any grit on the plate

glass, or adhering to the back of the negative, it is highly probable

that the glass plate will crack, and if the plate on which the negative

is taken be very curved,[20] the same disaster may be expected. Suppose

the day to be bright, and the negative fairly dense, the frame may

be placed for the trial print facing away from the sun (if there be

any) so that it receives merely skylight, and no direct rays. When the

transparent parts of the negative seem to have taken a fairly black or

brown colour, the print should be examined. In practice we have found

(supposing the printing room be away from the dark room) that a cloth

of thin yellow calico is a useful adjunct during the examination.

The cloth is large enough to cover the frame and also the head of the

operator. One half of the back is loosened and raised, the half pieces

are pulled back, and the paper will probably be found adhering to the

negative, and may require a little manoeuvring to separate it. A very

thin slip (of the size of a toothpick) of soft wood, sharpened at one

end, is a good implement to employ, as by inserting it the paper can be

separated at one corner, and then be raised by the fingers. We have seen

some printers blow against the paper, as if they were separating the

leaves of a book from one another, but this method is to be deprecated,

since particles of saliva are apt to be carried on to the paper with

the breath, and to cause spots, which often appear unaccountable.

Should the print appear slightly deeper than it is required to remain,

it is probably ready to be withdrawn from the action of light, but the

remaining half of the paper must next be examined to see whether such is

the case. To do this the first half of the pressure-board of the frame

which is loose must be pressed down once more into position, the frame

reversed end for end, and the other half of the board opened.



If the print is large (say 15 by 12) it is not advisable to look at much

of it at once, or for a longer time than can be avoided. It constantly

happens that on a warm day the paper contracts during the short time

necessary for a proper examination of the print; the consequence is,

that the paper does not fall on the same place on the negative when

reflected, and the result is a double print on the paper.



The printing being judged to be complete, the paper is withdrawn by

taking off pressure-board and pads, and put away for the further

operations of toning and fixing. In one establishment we are acquainted

with, the prints when taken from the frame are placed in a box the lid

of which is pierced by a hole covered with a dark cloth; whilst others

keep them in a press of blotting-paper. The great point to attend to,

however, is to keep them away from all actinic light; and we should

say, further, from all light, since darkened silver chloride becomes

oxidized in light which is usually considered to be non-actinic.

No doubt every printer is aware that the prints produced from the

same negative and on the same sample of albumenised paper similarly

sensitized vary considerably in richness and depth on different days.

For instance, when the light is bad, and when, consequently, the

printing takes a long time, the colour of the darkened surface will

be found to be much duller than on a day when the light is powerful.

Silver albuminate is much less sensitive to feeble light, whilst in

bright light the difference in sensitiveness is not nearly so marked,

and this may account in a certain degree for the difference; but if any

one takes the trouble to expose sensitised albumenized paper to bright

light so as to darken, and then to cover up half, leaving the other half

to be exposed to the light coming through ruby-glass, it will be found

that there is a difference in colour between the two portions, and on

toning the differences will be still more marked. In dull weather the

red and yellow rays bear a greater proportion to the blue and violet

rays (all of which enter into the composition of white light) than

they do on a bright day. It is the blue and violet rays that reduce

the silver chloride to the state of sub-chloride, and then oxidize the

latter; yet it must be remembered that the red and yellow also oxidize

the sub-chloride without being able primarily to produce it. Hence on

a bright day, when the printing is quick, the red and yellow rays have

but little time to do any work, whilst on a dull day they have plenty

of opportunity of oxidizing the sub-chloride as fast as it is formed.

The oxidized image is always more difficult to tone than one which is

unoxidized, hence the advantage of printing in a good light if possible.

The writers believe that one of the principal causes of the variation in

tone of silver prints, which is only too often to be seen, is caused by

this difference in length of exposure to the light.



The operator must now be supposed to be cognizant of the operations of

toning and fixing which are to be described in subsequent chapters,

and that he has the finished trial print of the particular landscape

negative before him. He sees whether the middle distance or far distance

is obtrusive, and notes which portions require to be softened down by

tissue paper, or to be brought nearer by strengthening the high-lights,

and eventually forms a picture of it as it should be, centring his

imagination in it as built up round the point of principal interest. He

endeavours to see whether the sweeps of light and shade lead up to this

principal object in the view, and whether, if light, it is in contrast

with an immediate dark part of the picture, or _vice versa_.



Knowing that this is one of the laws of art, he next should endeavour

practically to give effect to his imaginative picture by the judicious

manipulation of tissue paper, the crayon, and the paint, such as

described in Chapter IX. The next point to attend to is as to whether

the picture requires clouds or not, and if he have a stock of cloud

negatives of the right size, he must endeavour to pick out one, a

portion of which will compose well with the lines of the picture,[21]

and at the same time be correct as regards light and shade. When such

a negative is selected, it remains to print it in. A white sky is an

abomination, and a plain tinted one without gradation is nearly as bad.

If, therefore, the operator has the heart and means to do this double

printing, he should never neglect to do it.



But we would here remind him that when a sky-negative has been used

with a particular view, it should always be devoted to that landscape.

Nothing could be in worse taste, or further from nature, than to use

the same sky with different landscapes. We once saw a frame of sixteen

views, thirteen of which were backed with the same sky; this was bad

enough, but the absurdity went further, and in the same exhibition were

landscapes by another photographer with the same sky! The inference is

that both these photographers bought their sky negatives, printed them,

and exhibited them as their own--a proceeding to which a harsh name

might be given. To use a cloud negative properly, the reader should

consult the chapter on "Combination Printing."



There is another artifice, however, that does away with the blank sky.

It is practised by some of the leading photographers in England, and may

be put in requisition instead of the more elaborate double printing. In

order to do this, a not quite opaque sky--that is, one which "prints

in" a little--is necessary. Very effective clouds may be produced by a

paint-brush and lamp-black, Indian ink, or gamboge, by painting them

artistically _at the back of the negative_. It matters not if the clouds

so formed show sharp lines and dots, since, if the printing be done in

diffused light, the thickness of the glass plate on which the negative

is taken shades these off, and gives them the soft edges which are

natural to clouds. The clouds may take any of the usual shapes as seen

in nature, and the paint should not be applied too strongly, but should

have a certain amount of transparency. In some negatives we have seen

taken on dry plates, the sky was very transparent, and, when printed

in the ordinary manner, showed a good deal more than perceptible tint.

Yet, by a judicious masking, fleecy clouds floating in a light sky were

produced, which deceived the greatest connoisseurs in such matters.



We will now describe how such a negative should be prepared for printing.



Black varnish should be carefully run round the sky-line on the face

of the negative, for about a quarter of an inch. On the back of the

negative the medium should cover the sky to within one-eighth of an inch

of the sky-line, and by this means a sharp but _slightly softened edge_

of the distant landscape was projected. The breadth of the black varnish

border on the back was slightly greater than that on the film side of

the negative, being about an inch. A piece of cardboard was also roughly

cut out to the sky-line, and left sufficiently broad so as to more than

cover the sky when laid flat on it. The negative with the clouds painted

on it was now placed in the pressure-frame, with the sensitive paper in

contact with it. Outside the frame, and corresponding with the sky-line,

the edge of the cardboard was placed, a small bar to act as a weight

was placed across it as shown in the figure, and the top end supported

by a couple of wooden pegs. The printing took place in diffused light.

When the picture was withdrawn from the frame, the sky, being shaded

gradually by the card, was printed in lightly, whilst the remaining

portion of the negative received the full light; the sky, as is right it

should be, was darker near the zenith than toward the horizon, where it

was, in fact, white; but since the clouds were printed in at the top,

the baldness of the white sky was avoided.



[Illustration: _Fig._ 20.]



Excellent clouds may also be produced by the stump and crayon on tissue

paper, many of the effects of delicate clouds being capable of being

produced in this manner. A certain amount of skill is required in

producing them, but nothing beyond that which a little practice can give.



We may add that, instead of using this cardboard shade, some printers

prefer first to entirely mask the sky and print in the landscape, than

to mask the landscape, and to use a movable screen over the negative,

drawing it backwards and forwards during exposure, taking the precaution

that the top of the sky receives the most exposure. The method of

using the cloud negative, we have already said, will be found in the

chapter on "Combination Printing." Above all things, the printer must

bear in mind that if there be any _distance_ in the picture, the sky,

when it meets the margin, must be only very delicately tinted. Let it

be remembered that a picture is often spoilt by printing in clouds too

heavily. The clouds for an effect should be most delicate, with no heavy

massive shadows which overwhelm those of the landscape itself. We are

only talking of the ordinary landscape when the effect of storms is not

desired. It is not within the scope of this work to show how a landscape

and a sky negative may be printed into one plate to form a transparency

from which a new negative may be made; suffice it to say that, by using

collodio-chloride, or by the use of a slow dry plate and exposing to

candle light, the former may be produced in almost the same way that the

print is produced, and a negative may then be produced in the camera or

by a dry plate.









CHAPTER XI.



PREPARING THE PORTRAIT NEGATIVE.





So much has been written on the subject of what is called "retouching"

the negative, that it would be a waste of space to enter very fully

into details here. It is now generally admitted that working on the

negative is not only legitimate, but that it is absolutely necessary,

if a presentable portrait is to be printed. The only question is, where

to stop. Professional retouchers, in too many cases, do too much, and

by doing so they "overstep the modesty of nature," and turn the lovely

delicacy, softness, and texture of living nature into the appearance

of hard and cold marble statuary. Everything that is necessary to do

to a portrait negative is very simple; it should be corrected, not

remodelled. Freckles and accidental spots should be stopped out, high

lights may be strengthened, and shadows softened. We may here briefly

indicate the technical methods of performing these operations.



Some operators pour a solution of gum over the negative after fixing,

and when it is dry work upon the surface of the gum; but it is better

and safer to retouch the negative after it has been varnished. The

varnish must be allowed to become thoroughly hard before any working

upon it is attempted. A negative varnished at night should be ready to

be retouched the next morning. If very little has to be done to the

negative, it may be done at once without preparation; but it is often

advisable to prepare the surface of the varnish to take the lead pencil,

with which the greater part of the work is done. This is done with

"retouching medium."



Several preparations under this or similar names are sold by stock

dealers, all of them giving, as far as we have tried them, equally good

results. If the photographer prefers to make his own medium, he may

do so by diluting mastic, or any similar varnish, such as copal, with

turpentine. Apply the medium to the parts that it is intended to work on

with the finger, and allow to dry, which it does in a few minutes. Place

the negative on a retouching desk, and commence to fill up with the

point of the pencil all spots that are not required, such as freckles or

uneven marks. Some operators begin at the top of a face and work evenly

downwards. This is a bad plan, and usually results in a mechanical

flattening of the face; it is better to fill in here and there as

necessity appears to arise. The high lights may now be strengthened,

taking care not to make them violent or spotty. The shadows of the face

will be found to require softening, but the general shape of the shadows

must not be altered, and in modifying lines--such as the lines in the

forehead and under the eye--take care not to remove them altogether. An

old man without wrinkles is an unnatural and ghastly object--the "marble

brow" of the poet should be left to literature. The best pencils to

use are Faber's Siberian lead, the hard ones in preference. HH and HHH

are the sorts usually employed. The pencils must be kept very finely

pointed. To ensure this, a piece of wood covered with glass cloth should

be kept always at hand on which to grind the leads to a point.



Sometimes there are portions of a negative that require more filling

up than can be done with a pencil; in this case water-colour must be

employed. Indigo or Prussian blue is, perhaps, best for the purpose,

because these pigments allow a more appreciable or visible quantity

to be laid on without becoming opaque than any of the warm colours.

Sometimes parts--such as the arm of a child--will print too dark when in

contrast with a white dress; in this case it will be necessary to paint

over the part on the back of the negative, or to cut out a piece of

_papier minerale_ to the shape, and paste it over the dark part, also on

the glass side of the negative.









CHAPTER XII.



VIGNETTING





Of the many varieties of small portraiture, the vignette is, perhaps,

the most popular, and, when well done, is certainly the most refined

and delicate. Two things are to be especially avoided in vignetting.

The form of the vignette should not follow the form of the figure

closely, as it is too often made to do, and dark backgrounds should

not be employed. The qualities to endeavour to attain are softness of

gradation, and an arrangement of the forms of the vignette that shall

throw out the head and figure, and the resulting print should somewhat

resemble a sketch, finished if you like, but sketchy in effect. Although

the background should be light, it ought not to be white, but of a

tint that would just throw up the white of a lady's head-dress. If the

background screen could be painted so that a little shade should appear

over the shoulders of a sitter for a head, or rather darker behind the

lower part of a three-quarter figure, so much the better would be the

effect. It would be difficult to find a case where gradation could not

be of advantage in a background; however slight, it conduces especially

to relief.



Having stated what should be aimed at in vignettes, we now come to the

technical methods of producing them.



In many cases vignetting is considered to be a merely mechanical

operation, and very often looks like it. Perhaps the trade have more to

answer for than the printer, since the qualities of the wares advertised

for the use of the vignetter are often exaggerated to such a degree that

they are supposed to be suitable to any pictures. Vignette glasses are

not so common as they used to be, but they certainly are useful in some

instances; we almost think that the methods of producing vignetting

apparatus which will be described shortly, superior to them. In case the

printer should wish, however, to use these glasses, here is a method by

which he may produce them. Have a piece of orange glass, flashed on one

side only, rather larger than the size of the picture to be vignetted.

Take a rough print, and trace round, in the proper position on the

glass with an ink line, the point to which the picture should extend.

This should be marked on the unflashed surface of the glass--that is,

the surface on which the glass is uncoloured. Place the plate so marked

on a white surface, flashed side uppermost, and make a solution of

hydrofluoric acid and water, 1 part of the former to 3 of the latter,

in a gutta-percha dish or bottle.[22] Make a pad of flannel and cotton

wool at the end of a stick, about the size of a large nut, and drop

this into the solution. Dab this on the coloured surface of the glass

in the central portions where the print is to be completely printed in,

gradually working out to the inked line. Always work from the centre to

the edges, and dilute the acid with a little water as it approaches the

margins. By degrees the flashing will be dissolved away in the centre,

and, if properly performed, the colour will gradually be eaten away,

till the glass is colourless in the centre, and keeping its full shade

of orange at the ink lines. The glass is then washed, and is ready for

use.



The most popular plan of vignetting is with cotton-wool. We believe that

the greater part of the vignetting done in England is by this clumsy,

costly, and difficult method. It requires more time and attention than

any other way of producing the same results. Its advantages are, that it

is more "elastic," and allows the operator more scope for attention than

other methods. In the hands of a person who has very great skill, taste,

and patience, it is undoubtedly most useful; but when used by anything

lower than the highest skill, the results are almost always hard and

inartistic. The operation is thus performed. A hole is cut in a piece

of cardboard, which is placed over the negative. Under the edges of the

cardboard is placed cotton-wool, which is lightly pulled out, so as to

slightly shade the vignette, and produce the vignetting gradation.



The next methods of vignetting are dependent on simple laws of optics.

Suppose you cut a round hole in a card, say, half-inch in diameter, and

so arrange it that all the light getting to a sensitive paper comes

through this hole, and that the card is for our experiment placed

half-an-inch from the paper. Now place the hole so as to face the sky,

but so as the sun has no direct rays falling through the hole. It will

be found that the greatest darkening will not occupy a space exactly

opposite the hole, but be _away from the side on which the light is

brightest_. The dark round patch will be shaded gradually off till

a line is reached where, practically, the light has no effect--that

is, if the surface of the card next the paper be blackened. It will

be noted, however, that the shading is not equal on both sides, but

that the gradation is most extended away from the side on which the

light is brightest. A good example of what is meant will be to try the

experiment of placing the paper and card flat on the ground in the

angle between two walls, both of which are in shadow. It will be seen

that the brightest gradation takes place in the direction exactly away

from the angle of the walls. Next repeat the experiment, making the

hole point to the sky, which is equally illuminated and pointing well

away from the sun. It will be found that the gradations are equal, and

the greatest darkening exactly opposite the hole. Raise the card next

to the height of one inch, and the gradations will be found to be more

extended and softer. The reason of this can be well understood by a

glance at the figures. In both, suppose A B to represent the section of

the card, and C D the hole in it, and the dotted circle the sky, and E

F the paper. Take the points _a_, _b_, and _c_ on the paper, and let us

in the three instances see what relative illumination they will receive.

_a_ is opposite the hole, and receives the light from a circle of sky of

which _d e_ is diameter, and _b_ from an ellipse of which _h k_ is one

diameter, and _e_ from an ellipse of which _f g_ is one diameter. In the

first case, where the card is 1/2 inch from the paper, _h k_ is about

one-fifth of _d e_, and _g f_ about one-third of _d f_, and since the

ellipses vary as their two diameters multiplied together, the point _b_

would receive only one-twenty-fifth the light that _a_ received, and _c_

about one-ninth.



[Illustration: _Fig._ 21.]



[Illustration: _Fig._ 22.]



In fig. 21 the card is raised one inch from the paper, and here _f g_ is

about three-quarters of _d e_, and _h k_ about two-fifths; therefore,

in this case, the light on B would be only four-twenty-fifths, or about

one-sixth of that acting on _a_, and about nine-sixteenths or one-half

nearly on _c_. It is thus evident that the further away the card is,

the more extended will be the gradations. Again, suppose, in the last

figure, the bit of sky at _g f_ was twice as bright as at _d e_, then

the amount of light acting on _c_ would be the same as that acting on

_a_. It will thus be seen how important it is for proper gradation that

the hole in the card should be exposed to an equally illuminated sky,

or that some artifice should be employed to render the illumination

equal. If we paste a bit of tissue paper over C D, this is accomplished,

for then it becomes the source of illumination, and it is illuminated

equally all over, since on every part it receives the light of the whole

sky; but this is not the case if it is transparent to diffused light,

and is never the case if it is exposed to direct sunlight, since a

shadow of the hole is always cast on the paper beneath. If you choose to

put another piece of tissue paper, (say) one inch above the hole, and

extending over the whole length of the card, this difficulty is got rid

of, and this last piece of tissue paper illuminates that pasted over the

hole C D, and the gradations will then be nearly perfect.



Now to apply the above to forming a vignetting block.



Suppose we have a one-inch head to vignette and to show the shoulders

and chest, to be of the size of a carte-de-visite, that the background

is about a half-tone between black and white, and that but a trace of

it shall appear above the head. To make a good vignette, the graduation

from black to perfect white should lie within a limit of half an inch

for a carte size portrait. The question then arises at what distance

from the plate should a vignetting card be cut to help this object,

and what shape should be made the hole in the card. We take it that

one-fifth of the light necessary to produce a full black tone would

hardly produce any effect on the sensitised paper; knowing this and the

size of the aperture, we can calculate exactly what height the card

could be raised. Take the breadth between the shoulders that is to be

fully printed as 1-1/2 inches, then by constructing a figure similar

to figures 18 or 19 we shall find that the necessary height is about

one-third of an inch.[23]



[Illustration: _Fig._ 23.]



By judiciously cutting out an aperture in the card and vignetting,

defects in a background may often be entirely eliminated from the

print. Proceed in this way: Take a print of the portrait, and cut out

the figure in such a way as to get rid of the defective background,

and then place this on a piece of thick card (we prefer a thick card,

since it will not sag easily, and thus alter the gradation), and cut out

an aperture corresponding to it. The outsides of most carte-de-visite

frames are raised from the glass about one-third of an inch; place the

card on the front so that the aperture corresponds to the figure on the

negative, and tack it on to the frame. The dotted lines (fig. 23) show

the card  fastened on to the frame, and the opening left. This latter

may be covered with tissue paper, and the frame placed in diffused light

from the sky. In some cases it may be necessary to use a larger printing

frame than the ordinary carte frame, in which case the operator should

be able to make a vignetting apparatus raised at a proper height from

the glass. Suppose it is required to raise the opening half an inch

above the glass, and that the card is 4-1/4 by 3-1/2.



[Illustration: _Fig._ 24.]



Take the card and rule rectangles as shown (fig. 24), the inner one

being 4-1/4 by 3-1/2 inches, the next one 1/2 an inch outside that,

and the third 1/2 an inch outside that again. Cut out the outer

rectangle entirely, so that we have a piece of card of the size ABCD.

Take a needle point, and prick through the card at the points EFGH and

join these points at the back of the card by lines. Now take a sharp

penknife, and, having laid a flat edge along, cut the card half through

its thickness along KL, LM, MN, and NK. Turn the card over, and cut

along the lines corresponding to EH, HG, GE, and FE, also half way

through the thickness of the card. Turn the card over once more, and

cut out the shaded pieces at the corners. Now bend the card along the

cuts, and a raised block will result of this shape. The corners are

held together by pieces of gummed or albumenized paper, and the block

is ready for an aperture to be cut in it according to the portrait to

be printed. Wooden grooves may be glued along the top of the vignetting

frame, into which cards containing other apertures can be slipped.[24]



[Illustration: _Fig._ 25.]



The most practical method of vignetting, a modification of the above,

and the one we always prefer in our own practice, is as follows:--



[Illustration: _Fig._ 26.]



Take a piece of soft wood, half an inch thick for a cabinet size--a

thinner piece should be selected for a smaller picture--of a larger

dimension than the negative; in the centre of this cut a hole of the

shape of, but much smaller than, the desired vignette. One side of the

hole should be very much bevelled away, as represented in this section

(fig. 26). Place this block on the glass of the printing-frame, bevelled

side under, the hole being exactly over the part of the negative from

which the vignette is to be printed. The hole must now be covered with

tissue paper or ground glass, and the frame placed flat on a table to

print. The size of the hole in relation to the size of the vignette

will be easily ascertained by a little experience without the labour of

elaborate calculations. On dull days the tissue paper or ground glass

may be omitted.



This method is very simple and effective. A quantity of vignetting

blocks of various sizes and shapes could be made by a carpenter, or by

the printer, and should be always at hand.



A vignetting block should never be less than a quarter of an inch away

from the glass, otherwise the gradations will be too abrupt.









CHAPTER XIII.



ARTISTIC METHODS OF PRINTING THE PORTRAIT.





Having described in the last chapter the various mechanical arrangements

by which a simple vignette is produced, we will now proceed to give some

account of how that and other forms of printing can be turned to the

most artistic account in portraiture.



The idea that printing is a mere mechanical operation was exploded long

ago. It is now recognized that the final result owes a good deal of its

artistic effect to the way in which the negative is dealt with after it

is varnished, and especially to its treatment by the printer. There are

many varieties of vignettes, and the method is useful in various ways.





_Plain Vignettes._--The usual vignetted portrait is that which

represents a good-sized head and shoulders in the space allotted to the

picture. For a carte-de-visite, a head measuring about 1-1/4 inches

from the top of the head to the chin is a good proportion. Larger sizes

are often made, but they look coarse and vulgar, as if the photographer

had tried how much quantity he could give for the money, regardless of

quality; and even if the quality is good, the vulgar effect is still

there. For a cabinet size a head of 1-3/4 or 1-7/8 inches is quite large

enough. A very pretty style is that in which the gradation is carried

out so gradually as only to end with the edge of the paper.





_Three-quarter Length Vignettes._--A three-quarter length figure of a

lady, either standing or sitting, makes a pretty picture; for gentlemen,

a three-quarter vignette is not so good, although it is admissible. It

is difficult to make the legs look anything but awkward when they are

vignetted into empty space at the knee. For three-quarter vignettes a

light, sketchy landscape background may be used with effect.



There are many varieties of what may be called "fancy printing," in

which the vignette takes a conspicuous part. The first style that we

will consider is that of





_Vignettes on a Tinted Ground._--Print a vignette in the usual way.

Take it out of the frame, and place it on a board covered with velvet

or flannel, to prevent the paper shifting. Cover the print with glass,

and place over the printed part a piece of black paper roughly torn to

the shape, and rather smaller than the vignette. Place the whole in

the light until the white margin is slightly tinted, or "blushed," as

it is sometimes called. The edges of the black mask should be slightly

turned up or kept moving to prevent the junction of the tinting and the

vignette being visible.



The above method represents a vignetted head on smooth grey paper,

and is useful to show up the high lights on the face; but there is a

modification of this effect, in which the appearance of a sketch on

rough drawing-paper is produced.





_Vignettes on Rough Drawing-paper._--If, instead of placing a piece of

plain glass over the masked print, a thin negative of some diaper or

pattern had been used, the design could have been printed on the paper

instead of the even tint. A very good negative for this purpose is

made as follows:--Obtain a sheet of the roughest drawing-paper, take

a camel-hair brush dipped in thin sepia, and brush it evenly over the

paper; the colour will fall into the depressions of the paper, and make

the roughness still more visible. This should now be placed where a side

light falls upon it, and photographed. A very thin negative is all that

is required. This negative should be used in place of the plain glass,

and, if not printed too dark, the effect of the delicate vignette inside

the rough tint is very pleasing. It is better when using negatives for

this purpose to place them in pressure-frames, instead of merely placing

them or the print on the velvet board, to print, or perfect contact may

not be obtained.





_Medallions._--Medallions of oval and other forms are now a good deal

used for small portraits. These are simply produced by gumming a mask,

made of black or yellow paper, with an oval or other-shaped aperture,

on to the negative, the mask preserving the part it covers white. These

masks can be bought from the dealers cheaper and better than they can be

made. Eccentric shapes are, usually, in bad taste; the oval and dome are

quite sufficient for all purposes. If, instead of leaving the outside

of the print--that protected by the mask--white, it could be tinted,

the lights in the picture would have greater value, and the effect

be improved. To do this, the printed part should be covered with a

black-paper disc corresponding with the mask used in printing, the print

covered with glass, and exposed to the light until printed the required

depth. In performing this operation it will be found convenient to gum

the disc to the covering-glass. If texture could be added to this tinted

margin, then another element of beauty would be added. This may be done

in a similar manner to that described for vignettes, by using a negative

made from rough drawing-paper; but, in this case, there is opportunity

for a greater choice of objects from which to make the tinting negative,

such as grained leather, marble of various kinds, paper-hangings--when

suitable patterns can be obtained--and from the borders of old prints.

In this, as in many other things connected with photography, there is

a good deal of room for bad taste, which the photographer must try to

avoid. He must remember that all these surrounding designs should assist

the portrait, and not distract the attention from it.





_Vignettes in Ornamental Borders._--The writer has lately produced some

effects that have given much pleasure by using designs specially drawn

for the purpose. The designs principally consist of an oval in the

centre for the portrait, and a tablet underneath, on which the original

of the portrait may sign his name. These forms are surrounded by flowers

and other objects conventionally treated. The spaces for the portrait

and name should be stopped out with black varnish, so as to print

white. The easiest way to use these ornamental border negatives is as

follows:--First print the border negative; you will then have a print

with a white oval space in the centre. Place this print on the portrait

negative, taking care that it occupies the proper position in the oval.

This is easily ascertained by holding the print and negative up to the

light. It should then be placed in the frame and printed, care being

taken that the vignetted gradation does not spread beyond its limits

over the border.



There is a good deal of variety to be got out of the combination of the

mask and vignette. Here is one of them.





_Combination of Medallion and Vignette._--Vignette a head into the

centre of the paper; when this is done, place over it a black paper oval

disc, taking care that the head comes in the centre under the mask.

Place a piece of glass over the whole, and print. When the disc is

removed, the print will represent a vignette surrounded by a dark oval.

Many variations may be made of this form of picture, and there is much

scope for skill and taste.



Any of the tinting negatives above described may be used, or they can

be made from designs drawn on paper as we have already stated, or from

natural objects. But if our reader has followed us clearly thus far, he

is now in a position to form combinations for himself. This we recommend

him to do, for there is an additional beauty in anything in art that

indicates a distinctive style or shows thought and originality. There is

too much tendency in portraitists to run in grooves, which the universal

prevalence of the two styles, card and cabinet, help to promote. But

we must caution the young photographer against the mistake of making

changes for the sake of change. The "loud," and the bizarre, may attract

foolish people, but it is only the beautiful that will secure the

attention of the cultivated and refined.









CHAPTER XIV.



COMBINATION PRINTING.





The scope of photography is wider than those who have only taken a

simple portrait or landscape suppose. It is almost impossible to design

a group that could not have been reproduced from life by the means our

art places at our disposal. We do not mean to assert that such subjects

as Michael Angelo's Last Judgment, or Raphael's Transfiguration, for

instance, have ever been done in photography; but it is not so much

the fault of the art, as of the artists, that very elaborate pictures

have not been successfully attempted. It has not been the failing of

the materials, unplastic as they are when compared with paint and

pencils; it has been the absence of the requisite amount of skill in

the photographer in the use of them, that will account for the dearth

of great works in photography. The means by which these pictures could

have been accomplished is Combination Printing, a method which enables

the photographer to represent objects in different planes in proper

focus, to keep the true atmospheric and linear relation of varying

distances, and by which a picture can be divided into separate portions

for execution, the parts to be afterwards printed together on one paper,

thus enabling the operator to devote all his attention to a single

figure or sub-group at a time, so that if any part be imperfect, from

any cause, it can be substituted by another without the loss of the

whole picture, as would be the case if taken at one operation. By

thus devoting the attention to individual parts, independently of the

others, much greater perfection can be obtained in details, such as the

arrangement of draperies, the refinement of pose, and expression.



The most simple form of combination printing, and the one most easy

of accomplishment and most in use by photographers, is that by which

a natural sky is added to a landscape. It is well-known to all

photographers that it is almost impossible to obtain a good and suitable

sky to a landscape under ordinary circumstances. Natural skies are

occasionally seen in stereoscopic slides and very small views; but I am

now writing of pictures, and not of toys. It rarely happens that a sky

quite suitable to the landscape occurs in the right place at the time

it is taken, and, if it did, the exposure necessary for the view would

be sufficient to quite obliterate the sky; and if this difficulty were

obviated by any of the sun-shades, cloud-stops, or other inefficient

dodges occasionally proposed, the movement of the clouds during the

few seconds necessary for the landscape would quite alter the forms

and light and shade, making what should be the sky--often sharp and

crisp in effect--a mere smudge, without character or form. All these

difficulties are got over by combination printing, the only objections

being that a little more care and trouble are required, and some thought

and knowledge demanded. The latter should be considered an advantage,

for photographs, of a kind, are already too easy to produce. Of course,

when a landscape is taken with a blank sky, and that blank is filled up

with clouds from another negative, the result will depend, to a very

great degree, upon the art knowledge of the photographer in selecting

a suitable sky, as well as upon his skill in overcoming the mechanical

difficulties of the printing. It is not necessary here to enter into

a description of the art aspect of the matter, as that has often been

discussed; so we will confine ourselves to the mechanical details.



The landscape negative must have a dense sky, or, if it be weak, or have

any defects, it must be stopped out with black varnish. In this case, it

is better to apply the varnish to the back of the glass; by this means

a softer edge is produced in printing than if painted on the varnished

surface. With some subjects, such as those that have a tolerably level

horizon, it is sufficient to cover over part of the sky while printing,

leaving that part near the horizon gradated from the horizon into white.



It may here be remarked that in applying black varnish to the back of a

negative, occasions will often be found where a softened or vignetted

edge is required for joining, where a vignette glass or cotton wool

cannot be applied; in such cases the edge of the varnish may be softened

off by dabbing slightly, before it is set, with the finger, or, if a

broader and more delicately gradated edge be required, a dabber made

with wash-leather may be employed with great effect.



[Illustration]



When an impression is taken, the place where the sky ought to be will,

of course, be plain white paper; a negative of clouds is then placed in

the printing-frame, and the landscape is laid down on it, so arranged

that the sky will print on to the white paper in its proper place;

the frame is then exposed to the light, and the landscape part of the

picture is covered up with a mask edged with cotton wool. The sky is

vignetted into the landscape, and it will be found that the slight

lapping over of the vignetted edge of the sky negative will not be

noticed in the finished print. There is another way of vignetting the

sky into the landscape, which is, perhaps, better and more convenient.

Instead of the mask edged with cotton wool, which requires moving

occasionally, a curved piece of zinc or cardboard is used. Here is

a section of the arrangement. The straight line represents the sky

negative, and the part where it joins the landscape is partly covered

with the curved shade. Skies so treated must not, of course, be printed

in sunlight.



It is sometimes necessary to take a panoramic view. This is usually

done, when the pantascopic camera is not employed, by mounting two

prints together, so that the objects in the landscape shall coincide;

but this is an awkward method of doing what could be much better

accomplished by combination printing. The joining of the two prints is

always disagreeably visible, and quite spoils the effect. To print the

two halves of a landscape, taken on two plates, together, the following

precautions must be observed: both negatives must be taken before the

camera-stand is moved, the camera, which must be quite horizontal,

pointing to one half of the scene for the first negative, and then

turned to the remaining half of the view for the second negative. The

two negatives should be obtained under exactly the same conditions of

light, or they will not match; they should also be so taken that a

margin of an inch and a-half or two inches is allowed to overlap each

other; that is to say, about two inches of each negative must contain

the same or centre portion of the scene. It is advisable, also, that

they should be of the same density; but this is not of very great

consequence, because any slight discrepancy in this respect can be

allowed for in printing. In printing vignettes with cotton wool, or a

straight-edged vignette glass, the edge of the left-hand negative on

the side that is to join the other, taking care to cover up the part

of the paper that will be required for the companion negative; when

sufficiently printed, take the print out of the frame, and substitute

the right-hand negative; lay down the print so that it exactly falls on

the corresponding parts of the first part printed (this will be found

less difficult, after a little practice, than it appears), and expose

to the light, vignetting the edge of this negative, also, so that the

vignetted part exactly falls on the softened edge of the impression

already done. If great care be taken to print both plates exactly alike

in depth, it will be impossible to discover the join in the finished

print. If thought necessary, a sky may be added, as before described,

or it may be gradated in the light, allowing the horizon to be lighter

than the upper part of the sky.



Perhaps the greatest use to which combination printing is now put is

in the production of portraits with natural landscape backgrounds.

Many beautiful pictures, chiefly cabinets and card, have been done

in this way by several photographers. The easiest kind of figure for

a first attempt would be a three-quarter length of a lady, because

you would then get rid of the foreground, and have to confine your

attention to the upper part of the figure and the distance. Pictures

of this kind have a very pleasing effect. In the figure negative,

everything should be stopped out, with the exception of the figure,

with black varnish; this should be done on the back of the glass when

practicable, which produces a softer join; but for delicate parts--such

as down the face--where the joins must be very close, and do not admit

of anything approaching to vignetting, the varnish must be applied on

the front. A much better effect than painting out the background of

the figure negative is obtained by taking the figure with a white or

very light screen behind it; this plan allows sufficient light to pass

through the background to give an agreeable atmospheric tint to the

distant landscape; and stopping out should only be resorted to when the

background is too dark, or when stains or blemishes occur, that would

injure the effect. An impression must now be taken which is not to be

toned or fixed. Cut out the figure, and lay it, face downwards, on the

landscape negative in the position you wish it to occupy in the finished

print. It may be fixed in its position by gumming the corners near the

lower edge of the plate. It is now ready for printing. It is usually

found most convenient to print the figure negative first. When this has

been done, the print must be laid down on the landscape negative so

that the figure exactly covers the place prepared for it by the cut-out

mask. When printed, the picture should be carefully examined, to see if

the joins may be improved or made less visible. It will be found that,

in many places, the effect can be improved and the junctions made more

perfect, especially when a light comes against a dark--such as a distant

landscape against the dark part of a dress--by tearing away the edge of

the mask covering the dark, and supplying its place by touches of black

varnish at the back of the negative; this, in printing, will cause the

line to be less defined, and the edges to soften into each other. If the

background of the figure negative has been painted out, the sky will be

represented by white paper; and as white paper skies are neither natural

nor pleasing, it will be advisable to sun it down.



If a full-length figure be desired, it will be necessary to photograph

the ground with the figure, as it is almost impossible to make the

shadow of a figure match the ground on which it stands in any other way.

This may be done either out of doors or in the studio. The figure taken

out of doors would, perhaps, to the critical eye, have the most natural

effect, but this cannot always be done, neither can it be, in many

respects, done so well. The light is more unmanageable out of doors,

and the difficulty arising from the effect of wind on the dress is very

serious. A slip of natural foreground is easily made up in the studio;

the error to be avoided is the making too much of it. The simpler a

foreground is in this case, the better will be the effect.



The composition of a group should next engage the student's attention.

In making a photograph of a large group, as many figures as possible

should be obtained in each negative, and the position of the joins so

contrived that they shall come in places where they shall be least

noticed, if seen at all. It will be found convenient to make a sketch

in pencil or charcoal of the composition before the photograph is

commenced. The technical working out of a large group is the same as for

a single figure; it is, therefore, not necessary to repeat the details;

but we give a reduced copy, as a frontispiece to this volume, of a large

combination picture, entitled "When the Day's Work is Done," by Mr. H.

P. Robinson, a description of the progress and planning of which may be

of use to the student.



A small rough sketch was first made of the idea, irrespective of any

considerations of the possibility of its being carried out. Other small

sketches were then made, modifying the subject to suit the figures

available as models, and the accessories accessible without very much

going out of the way to find them. From these rough sketches a more

elaborate sketch of the composition, pretty much as it stands, and of

the same size, 32 by 22 inches, was made, the arrangement being divided

so that the different portions may come on 23 by 18 plates, and that the

junctions may come in unimportant plates, easy to join, but not easy

to be detected afterwards. The separate negatives were then taken. The

picture is divided as follows:--



The first negatives taken were the two of which the background is

composed. The division runs down the centre, where the light wall is

relieved by the dark beyond it. These two negatives were not printed

separately--it is advisable to have as few printings as possible--but

were carefully cut down with a diamond, and mounted on a piece of glass

rather larger than the whole picture, the edges being placed in contact,

making, in fact, _one_ large negative of the interior of the cottage,

into which it would be comparatively easy to put almost anything. The

next negative was the old man. This included the table, chair, and

matting on which his feet rest. This matting is roughly vignetted into

the adjoining ground of the cottage negative. The great difficulty at

first with this figure was the impossibility of joining the light head

to the dark background; no amount of careful registration seemed equal

to effect this difficult operation; but if it could not be done, it

could be evaded. Several clever people have been able to point out the

join round the head, down the forehead, and along the nose, but we have

never been able to see it ourselves, because we know it is not there.

This is how the difficulty was got over. The figure was taken with a

background that would print as nearly as possible as dark as the dark of

the cottage. The join is nowhere near the head, but runs up the square

back of the old woman's chair, then up the wall, and across the picture,

over the head in an irregular line, and descends on the old man's back,

whence it was easy to carry it down the dark edge of his dress and the

chairs till it comes to the group of baskets, pails, &c., that fill

up the corner. On the other side, the join runs along the edge of the

table, and finds its way out where the floor coverings come together.

The old lady was then photographed, and is simply joined round the edge;

so also was the group in the corner, and the glimpse of the village seen

through the window.



At first sight, it will appear difficult to place the partly-printed

pictures in the proper place on the corresponding negative. There are

many ways of doing this, either of which may be chosen to suit the

subject. Sometimes a needle may be run through some part of the print,

the point being allowed to rest on the corresponding part of the second

negative. The print will then fall in its place at that point. Some

other point has then to be found at a distance from the first; this may

be done by turning up the paper to any known mark on the negative, and

allowing the print to fall upon it; if the two separate points fall

on the right places, all the others must be correct. Another way of

joining the prints from the separate negatives is by placing a candle

or lamp under the glass of the printing-frame--practically, to use a

glass table--and throwing a light through the negative and paper; the

join can then be seen through. But the best method is to make register

marks on the negatives. This is done in the following manner. We will

suppose that we wish to print a figure with a landscape background from

two negatives, the foreground having been taken with the figure. At the

two bottom corners of the figure negative make two marks with black

varnish, thus |_ _|; these, of course, will print white in the picture.

A proof is now taken, and the outline of the figure cut out accurately.

Where the foreground and background join, the paper may be torn across,

and the edges afterwards vignetted with black varnish on the back of

the negatives. This mark is now fitted in its place on the landscape

negative. Another print is now taken of the figure negative, and the

white corner marks cut away very accurately with a pair of scissors.

The print is now carefully applied to the landscape negative, so that

the mark entirely covers those parts of the print already finished.

The landscape is then printed in. Before, however, it is removed from

the printing-frame, if, on partial examination, the joins appear to be

perfect, two lead pencil or black varnish marks are made on the mark

round the cut-out corners at the bottom of the print. After the first

successful proof there is no need for any measurement or fitting to get

the two parts of the picture to join perfectly; all that is necessary

is merely to cut out the little white marks, and fit the corners to the

corresponding marks on the mask; and there is no need to look if the

joins coincide at other places, because, if two points are right, it

follows that all must be so. This method can be applied in a variety of

ways to suit different circumstances.



It is always well to have as few paintings as possible, and it

frequently happens that two or more negatives can be printed together.

For instance, the picture we have been discussing--"When the Day's

Work is Done"--is produced from six negatives, but it only took three

printings. The two negatives of which the cottage is composed was, as

already explained, set up on a large sheet of glass, and printed at

once; the old man was also set upon another glass of the same size, with

the negative of the glimpse through the window; and the old woman was

printed in like manner, with the corner group of baskets, &c. So that

here were practically three negatives only. These were registered with

corner marks so accurately that not a single copy has been lost through

bad joins.



There are one or two things to consider briefly before concluding this

subject.



It is true that combination printing--allowing, as it does, much

greater liberty to the photographer, and much greater facilities for

representing the truth of nature--also admits, from these very facts,

of a wide latitude for abuse; but the photographer must accept the

conditions at his own peril. If he finds that he is not sufficiently

advanced in knowledge of art, and has not sufficient reverence for

nature, to allow him to make use of these liberties, let him put on his

fetters again, and confine himself to one plate. It is certain (and this

we put in italics, to impress it more strongly on the memory) that _a

photograph produced by combination printing must be deeply studied in

every particular, so that no departure from the truth of nature shall

be discovered by the closest scrutiny_. No two things must occur in

one picture that cannot happen in nature at the same time. If a sky

is added to a landscape, the light must fall on the clouds and on the

earth from the same source and in the same direction. This is a matter

that should not be done by judgment alone, but by judgment guided by

observation of nature. Effects are often seen, especially in cloud-land,

very puzzling to the calm reasoner when he sees them in a picture;

but these are the effects that are often best worth preserving, and

which should never be neglected, because it may possibly happen that

somebody will not understand it, and, therefore, say it is false, and,

arguing still further on the wrong track, will say that combination

printing always produces falsehoods, and must be condemned. A short

anecdote may, perhaps, be allowed here. Some time ago a photograph of

a landscape and sky was sent to a gentleman whose general judgment in

art was admitted to be excellent; but he knew that combination printing

was sometimes employed. In acknowledging the receipt he said, "Thank

you for the photograph; it is a most extraordinary effect; sensational,

certainly, but very beautiful; but it shows, by what it is, what

photography cannot do; your sky does not match your landscape; it must

have been taken at a different time of day, at another period of the

year. A photograph is nothing if not true." Now it so happened that

the landscape and sky were taken at the same time, the only difference

being that the sky had a shorter exposure than the landscape, which was

absolutely necessary to get the clouds at all, and does not affect the

result. Another instance arose in connection with a picture representing

a group of figures with a landscape background. Four of the figures

were taken on one plate, at one operation; yet a would-be critic wrote

at some length to prove that these figures did not agree one with

another; that the light fell on them from different quarters; that the

perspective of each had different points of sight; and that each figure

was taken from a different point of view! These two cases are mentioned

to show that it is sometimes a knowledge of the means employed, rather

than a knowledge of nature--a foregone conclusion that the thing must

be wrong, rather than a conviction, from observation, that it is not

right--that influences the judgment of those who are not strong enough

to say, "This thing is right," or "This thing is wrong, no matter by

what means it may have been produced."









CHAPTER XV.



TONING THE PRINT.





If a print on albumenized paper be fixed without any intermediate

process, the result is that the image is of a red, disagreeable tone,

and unsightly. Moreover, it will be found that, if such a print be

exposed to the atmosphere, it rapidly loses its freshness, and fades. In

order to avoid this unsightliness, resort is had to toning, the toning,

in reality, being the substitution of some less attackable metal for

the metallic silver which forms a portion of the print. The usual metal

used for substitution is gold applied in the state of the ter-chloride.

It is not very easy to tell precisely how the substitution is effected;

the question is, at present, sub judice, and, therefore, we propose

to omit any theory that may have been broached. It is sufficient to

say that it is believed the first step towards the reduction of the

gold is the production of a hydrated oxide, and never metallic gold.

Be that as it may, if a finely-divided silver be placed in a solution

of chloride of gold, the silver becomes converted into the chloride,

and the gold is quickly reduced to the metallic state; and since gold

combines with more chloride than does silver, it is manifest that when

the substitution takes place,[25] the metallic gold deposited must

be very much less than the silver. The colouring power of gold is,

however, very great, when in the fine state of division in which we have

it, being an intense purple to blue colour, and a very little of this

mixed visually with the ruddy or brown colour of the albuminate which

has been discoloured by light gives, after fixing, a pleasing tone. A

picture, when toned thus, is composed of silver subchloride, metallic

gold, and an organic compound of silver. If a print be kept in the

toning bath too long, we are all aware that the image becomes blue and

feeble, and the same disaster happens when a toning bath is too strong,

_i.e._, is too rich in gold solution. The reason of this is, that too

much gold is substituted for the silver in the sub-chloride, and there

is in consequence too great a colour of the finely-precipitated gold

seen. To make a toning bath, the first thing is to look after the gold.

There is a good deal of chloride of gold sold, which is, in reality, not

chloride of gold, but a double chloride of gold and of some such other

base as potassium, and if it be paid for as pure chloride of gold, it

is manifest that the price will be excessive. It is best to purchase

pure chloride of gold, though it may be slightly acid, since subsequent

operations correct the acidity. In our own practice we get fifteen-grain

tubes, and break them open, and add to each grain one drachm of water,

and in this state it is convenient to measure out. Thus, for every grain

of gold to be used, it is only necessary to measure out one drachm

into a measure. In delicate chemical operations, this would rightly

be considered a rough method; but for a practical photographer it is

sufficiently precise.



Now if chloride of gold alone were used, it would be found that the

prints, after immersion in a dilute solution, were poor and "measley,"

and practice has told us that we must add something to the solution to

enable it to act gradually and evenly. First of all, the gold solution

must be perfectly neutral, and we know no better plan than adding to it

a little powdered chalk, which at once neutralizes any free acid. It

is not a matter of indifference what further retarder is added, for

the reason that the more you retard the action, the more ruby-coloured

becomes the gold, and less blue. A well-known experiment is to dissolve

a little phosphorus in ether, and add it to a gallon of water, and then

to drop in and stir about half a grain of chloride of gold. Phosphorus

reduces the gold into the metallic state, but when so dilute the

reduction takes place very slowly. The gold will, however, precipitate

gradually, but it will be in such a fine state of division that it is

a bright ruby colour. A very common addition to make to a toning bath

is acetate of soda, and if the gold be in defect, the same appearance

will take place in the solution. If chloride of lime, however, be added

instead, and a commencement of precipitation of gold be brought about,

the gold will be of a blue colour, having a slight tendency to purple.

In this case, the grains of gold deposited are larger than when it is in

the ruby state. The tone of the print then depends in a large measure

on the degree of rapidity with which the gold is deposited. The quicker

the deposit, the larger and bluer the gold, whilst an extremely slow

deposition will give the red form. It often happens that no matter how

long a print is immersed in a toning bath, it never takes a blue tone.

The reason will be obvious from the above remarks.



We now give some toning baths which are much used.



    No. 1.--Gold tri-chloride     1 grain

            Sodium carbonate     10 grains

            Water                10 ounces



This bath must be used immediately after mixing, since the gold is

precipitated by the carbonate. The tones given by this bath are purple

and black. The prints should be toned to dark brown for the purple tone,

and a slightly blue tone for the black tone.



    No. 2.--Gold tri-chloride     2 grains

            Saturated solution

              of chloride of

              lime                2 drops

            Chalk                 a pinch

            Water                16 ounces



The saturated solution of chloride of lime is made by taking the common

disinfecting powder, and shaking a teaspoonful up in a pint bottle.

When the solids have settled, the clear liquid can be decanted off, and

corked up till required. This is the solution used above. It is as well

to keep this solution in the dark room.



The water with this bath should be hot (boiling better still), and the

bath may be used when it is thoroughly cool. It is better, however, to

keep it a day before using, since, when fresh, the action is apt to

be too violent, and the prints are readily over-toned. The tone with

this bath is a deep sepia to black. To get the first tone a very short

immersion is necessary; the prints should be almost red. For a black

tone the prints should be left in the solution till they are induced to

be of a purple hue.



    No. 3 is made as follows:--



            Sodium acetate        1 drachm

            Gold trichloride      5 minim

            Distilled water      12 ounces



This bath is a most excellent one in many respects, and should not be

used under a week to get the best result. As this is a long time to keep

a bath, it is as well to have two always on stock. It keeps indefinitely

if proper care be taken of it. This produces a purple or brown tone,

according to the length of time the print is immersed in it.



Now, as to toning the print. After the day's printing is done, the

prints should be placed in a pan of good fresh water, in order to

dissolve out all or a certain amount of silver nitrate that is

invariably left in them. A puncheon, such as is used in dairies, is

very convenient. It should be filled with water, and the prints placed

in one by one, taking care that no one sticks to its neighbour, as this

would be a fruitful source of unequal toning. Most water contains a

little carbonate of lime and chloride of sodium, &c.; the water will

therefore become milky. When the prints have been in the first water

for ten minutes, they should be removed to another vessel of water, one

by one. The first wash water should be placed in a wooden tub, with

a tap let into it about six inches above the base, together with a

little common salt. The salt forms chloride of silver, which gradually

precipitates, and the clear water is then drawn off on the next day, and

the sediment is left undisturbed.



[Illustration: _Fig._ 27.]



It now remains to see which toning bath is to be used. If No. 1 or 3,

the whole of the free silver should as far as possible be washed away,

which may entail three or four changes of water; the last two washings

it will hardly repay to place in the tub; the second washing should

certainly be added to it. If No. 2 toning bath be used, a little free

silver should remain in the print; in fact, the washing should be

confined to two changes of water.



When toning operations are commenced, the toning solution is poured

off from any sediment that may be in the bottle containing it into a

dish a couple of inches wider each way than the largest print which

has to be toned. If big prints have to be toned, it is inadvisable to

place more than a couple in the dish at the same time, since there is a

certain awkwardness in judging of the amount of tone given to a print

which is (say) between two or three. The prints should be placed face up

in the solution, and great care should be taken that liquid separates

each print from the next one to it, otherwise there will be patches of

unequal toning. The dish containing the prints in the solution should be

gently rocked to secure a proper mixture of the solution which may have

been robbed of its gold in those strata next surface of the prints. The

rocking is also advisable to cause any adhesion between two deep-toning

prints impossible. If the prints be of small size, a dozen or more may

be toned at one operation. Each print should be frequently brought to

the surface of the liquid, and examined in order to see how the toning

action is progressing. When one print is judged sufficiently toned, it

is removed to a dish containing pure water, and another untoned print

placed in the dish in its stead. This operation is continued till all

the prints are toned. We have heard that it has been suggested to place

the prints in water containing a little acetic acid or common salt, in

order to stop the toning action continuing from the solution which may

be held in the paper. The former is most undesirable, acetic acid, as we

shall see presently, decomposing the fixing bath.



As to the addition of common salt, we can scarcely give a favourable

opinion regarding it. The addition of a chloride does, in truth, alter

the colour of the deposited gold (see _ante_), and it may be this that

gives rise to the opinion that it corrects toning action. Of one thing

we have little doubt, however, and that is, that the addition of any

large amount of common salt will tend to turn the albumenate of silver

into chloride, which in fixing will materially weaken the print. When

giving the formula of the toning baths, we have indicated the depth to

which toning should take place. One great point to attend to is, that

a print should not be a slatey colour when fixed, and that can only

be avoided by stopping the toning action when the print arrives at a

blue-purple stage.



The toning bath, when used, should be replaced in the bottle, and we

recommend that it be kept in a dark place, otherwise any chloride of

silver which finds its way into the solution will darken and be a

nucleus for the precipitation of gold from the solution. The energy of

the toning bath would, in consequence, be wholly gone. It will be found

that in very cold solutions formed in winter the toning action is much

slower than in summer, and we need scarcely point out that this due to

the fact that cold invariably retards chemical action. This retardation

is not advantageous, and it will be found positively hurtful as to the

colour of the precipitated gold. We therefore recommend that the toning

solution and the dish in which it is to be poured should be warmed

before the fire, the former to a temperature of about 70 deg.F., and the

latter a little higher. By this means the toning action will take place

as rapidly as in warm weather, and the same tones be produced. It must

be remembered we are writing for all; not for those alone who have

an elaborate arrangement for keeping their operating rooms at a good

temperature in all weathers, but also for those who cannot afford the

luxury. It is for this reason that we have given the above directions.









CHAPTER XVI.



FIXING THE PRINT.





Sir J. Herschel was the first to point out that hyposulphite of soda

would dissolve chloride of silver, and subsequently it has been found

that it dissolves almost every organic salt of silver. In our early

chapters we gave some examples of this. When we add hyposulphite to a

salt of silver, such as the chloride, we get one of two reactions, the

formation of a nearly insoluble double hyposulphite of soda and silver,

or a readily soluble one.



     Silver           Sodium

    Chloride  and    Hyposulphite

      AgCl     +   Na_{2}S_{2}O_{3}



    form



     Insoluble Double          Sodium

      Hyposulphite of   and  Chloride.

    Silver and Sodium

      AgNaS_{2}O_{3}     +     NaCl



And



     Silver             Sodium

    Chloride  and    Hyposulphite



     2AgCl     +   3Na_{2}S_{2}O_{3}



    form



          Soluble Double              Sodium

          Hyposulphite of      and  Chloride.

        Silver and Sodium

    Ag_{2}Na_{4}3(S_{2}O_{3})   +     2NaCl



The first insoluble double hyposulphite is formed when there is only

a small quantity of sodium hyposulphite present; the soluble kind

when the sodium hyposulphite is in excess. Since it is the soluble

kind which we wish to form, it is manifest that the presence of a

sufficiency of hyposulphite in the fixing bath is necessary. If not,

we have left the insoluble form on the paper. If either of these two

kinds of hyposulphite be made in a test-tube, we can readily simulate

the effect of atmospheric exposure. If slightly acid water be added

to the hyposulphite, it will be seen, when chloride of silver has

been dissolved by the hyposulphite, that the precipitate or solution

commences to blacken, sulphide of silver being formed. On the other

hand, if we take albumenate of silver, and dissolve it in hyposulphite

of soda, we shall find that the addition of acid gradually causes a

yellow-looking compound to separate out, and it is probably this body

formed in the paper which causes the gradual yellowing of the whites of

silver prints.



What is taught us, then, by this observation is, that by thorough

washing we must try and eliminate all traces of hyposulphite of silver,

and, indeed, of the hyposulphite of soda, since the latter decomposes as

rapidly in the presence of acid as does the silver compound.



The formula for the fixing bath which we recommend is:--



    Sodium hyposulphite           4 ounces

    Water                         1 pint

    Ammonia                       1/2 drachm



The addition of the ammonia prevents any possibility of an acid reaction

arising, and otherwise softens the film of albumen and the size of

the paper, causing more rapid fixation and more thorough washing.

Another thing the ammonia does is, that it prevents, in a great

measure, blistering of the film of albumen, which is common in some

highly-albumenized paper.



Experience has shown that one ounce of solid hyposulphite will fix with

safety three sheets of paper, so that an idea can be formed of how much

must be used for a day's printing. The hyposulphite bath which has been

used one day should never be used the next, since it invariably contains

the germs of decomposition in it from some cause or another. Indeed, the

appearance of the solution indicates this is so, since it is usually of

a yellow or brownish appearance.



The time required for fixing a print varies with the thickness of

the paper used. As a rule, prints on the medium-sized paper require

ten minutes' soaking in the bath, whilst thick-size requires fifteen

minutes. Whilst toning, the dish containing the hyposulphite should

be kept in a gentle rocking motion, as in toning, and for the same

reasons. Prints may be examined from time to time, to see how the

fixing progresses. When a print is not quite fixed, small spots of dark

appearance will be seen when it is examined by transmitted light. The

operation of fixing should be continued after these disappear for at

least three or four minutes, in order that the hyposulphite of soda in

the dish may get impregnated with the double silver and sodium salt

which is in the print, and thus render washing more effectual. It should

be noted that the dish for fixing should be at least as long and wide

as the dish used for toning; that it should be deeper when, as a rule,

all the prints are fixed at one time. Care should be taken that dishes

which are used for sensitizing, toning, or fixing, _should not be used

for anything else_. The glaze of porcelain dishes is often soft, and

frequently absorbs a certain amount of the solutions used. Thus, if

a porcelain dish be used for a solution of any aniline dye, it will

often be found that it is permanently stained. Colour in this last is

merely indication of what happens with any other solution. It will thus

be seen that it is a mistake to use a dish for fixing when the glaze

is cracked, since old hyposulphite must find its way into the body of

the fresh solution that may be used, and thus institute a spontaneous

decomposition, and a consequent want of permanence in the print. For

our own part, we believe that a gutta-percha dish is a safer dish to

use than any other, since it is impervious to any solution, and can be

well scoured after fixing, and before being again brought into use. We

believe that much of the fading of prints may be traced to the use of

unsuitable dishes for fixing.









CHAPTER XVII.



WASHING THE PRINT.





There are very many apparatus designed for washing prints; but

we believe that, where few prints have to be treated, careful

hand-washing is as superior to machine-washing, as hand-made paper

is to machine-made. In our own practice we take the prints from the

fixing-dish, and immerse them in a large puncheon of water, and allow

them to soak for five minutes, after which we carefully pour off all

the water, and replenish with fresh, in which we leave them for a

quarter-of-an-hour. After that we take the prints and place them on a

glass slab, and, with a squeegee, squeeze as much water as possible out

of each separately; this we repeat twice. After two more washings of a

quarter-of-an-hour, we then wash for half-an-hour, and, with a sponge,

dab them as dry as possible, and again immerse for half-an-hour. After

repeating this operation twice, we allow a stream of running water

to pour into the puncheon for a couple of hours, carrying the stream

through an india-rubber pipe, at the end of which is a glass tube, to

the bottom of the puncheon, and so that the pour of water goes against

the side. By this means there is a constant stir in the water, and the

water flows over the edge of the puncheon. It is convenient to cut a

notch in the top rim of the puncheon, so that the water may find an exit

before reaching the level of the rim. The prints are then taken out,

sponged once more, and dried. By this arrangement we have got prints

which are perfectly unfaded, though they have been in existence eighteen

years, and have been to the tropics, and in the dampest climates. This

method of washing, though tedious, should be applied to all prints; but,

in the present day, it can hardly be hoped that it can be immediately

adopted, on account of the attention it requires; we therefore describe

an apparatus which can be used. It was designed by Mr. England,

and consists of a working trough, as shown in the figure, which is

automatically worked by an overshot wheel. We need not enter into the

details of the invention, as they are self-evident.



[Illustration: _Fig._ 28.]



This washing arrangement causes the prints to be alternately soaking

in water, and draining. Whilst in the water they are perpetually being

shaken apart by the movement of the tray, and thus every part of the

print gets washed, and it is almost impossible for two prints to stick

together. In all washing apparatus there is a danger of air-bells

forming on the surface of the prints while in the water, but in this

form there is the advantage that whilst draining the air-bells must

break, and so water on rising to the level of the prints can obliterate

any of the evil effects which would be caused by their being perpetually

remaining on one spot. It is useless to attempt to describe other forms

of the apparatus, since there are so many; we have chosen one which

appears to us to be a satisfactory form.



The following tests for the elimination of hyposulphite are taken from

another work of this series.[26]



"The following is a most delicate test.



"Make the following test solution:--



    Potassium permanganate        2 grains

    Potassium carbonate          20   "

    Water                         1 quart



"The addition of a few drops of this rose-coloured solution to a pint of

water will yield a slightly pink tinge. If there be any trace of sodium

hyposulphite present, this colour will give place to one of a greenish

hue.



"If the permanganate be not at hand, the following well-known starch

iodide test may be adopted:--



"Take about two drachms of water and a small piece of starch about the

size of a small pea; powder and boil the starch in the water till the

solution is quite clear; add one drop of a saturated solution of iodine

in alcohol to this clear liquid. It will now become dark blue. Of this

solution drop two drops into two clean test tubes, and fill up one with

distilled water and the other with the water to be tested; a faint blue

colour should be perceptible in the first test tube. In the second

test tube, should hyposulphite be present, this blue colour will have

disappeared, the iodide of starch becoming colourless in its presence.

The best mode of comparing the two waters is by placing a piece of white

paper behind the test tubes.



"It frequently occurs that though sodium hyposulphite cannot be detected

in the washing water, it may be present in the paper itself. The paper

on which most prints are taken being sized with starch, if a _very_

weak solution of iodine be applied with a brush across the _back_ of a

print, a blue mark will indicate the _absence_ of the hyposulphite. Care

must be taken that the iodine solution is _very_ weak, otherwise a part

of the iodine will first destroy the trace of the salt, and then the

remainder will bring out the blue re-action."



We finish this chapter by quoting our maxims to be observed in printing.



    "_Maxims for Printing._



    "1. The prints should have the highest lights _nearly_ white,

    and the shadows verging on a bronzed colour before toning.



    "2. Place the prints, before toning, in the water, face

    downwards, and do not wash away too much of the free nitrate of

    silver.



    "3. The toning solution must be neutral or slightly alkaline,

    and not colder than 60 deg.



    "4. Tone the prints to purple or sepia, according as warm or

    brown prints are required.



    "5. Move the prints, in both the toning and fixing solutions,

    repeatedly, taking care that no air-bubbles form on the surface.



    "6. Take care that the fixing bath is not acid.



    "7. Use fresh sodium hyposulphite solution for each batch of

    prints to be fixed.



    "8. Wash thoroughly after and before fixing.



    "9. Make a sensitizing bath of a strength likely to give the

    best results with the negatives to be printed.



    "10. Print in the shade, or direct sunshine, according to the

    density of the negative."









CHAPTER XVIII.



PRINTING ON PLAIN PAPER.





Prints on plain paper are sometimes of use; for instance, they form an

excellent basis on which to colour. They are of course duller than an

albumenized print, since the image is formed more in the body of the

paper than on the surface. The following formula may be used:--



    Ammonium chloride            60 to  80 grains

    Sodium citrate              100   "

    Sodium chloride              20 to  30   "

    Gelatine                     10   "

    Distilled water              10 ounces



Or,



    Ammonium chloride           100 grains

    Gelatine                     10   "

    Water                        10 ounces



The gelatine is first swelled in cold water, and then dissolved in hot

water, and the remaining components of the formulae are added. It is

then filtered, and the paper is floated for three minutes, following

the directions given on page 10. If it be required to obtain a print on

plain paper in a hurry, a wash of citric acid and water (one grain to

the ounce) may be brushed over the back of ordinary albumenized paper,

and, when dried, that side of the paper may be sensitized and printed in

the ordinary manner. For cold tones the wash of the citric acid may be

omitted.



The toning and fixing are the same as described in Chapters XII. and

XIII.









CHAPTER XIX.



PRINTING ON RESINIZED PAPER.





The following is taken from another volume of this series.[27]



To Mr. Henry Cooper we are indebted for a valuable printing process,

founded on substituting resins for albumen or other sizing matter. The

prints obtained by this process are very beautiful, and lack that gloss

of albumen which is often called vulgar and inartistic.



The following are the two formulae which Mr. Cooper has communicated to

the writer:--



    Frankincense                 10 grains

    Mastic                        8   "

    Calcium chloride              5 to 10   "

    Alcohol                       1 ounce



When the resins are dissolved in the alcohol, the paper is immersed in

the solution, then dried and rolled. The sensitizing bath recommended is

as follows (though the strong bath given at page 126 will answer):--



    Silver nitrate               60 grains

    Water                         1 ounce



To the water is added as much gelatine as it will bear without

gelatinizing at 60 deg. Fah.



The second formula gives very beautiful prints, soft and delicate in

gradation.



The paper is first coated with an emulsion of white lac in gelatine,

which is prepared as follows:--



3 ounces of _fresh_ white lac are dissolved in 1 pint of strong alcohol,

and after filtering or decanting, as much water is added as it will bear

without precipitating the lac; 1 ounce of good gelatine is soaked and

dissolved in the pint of boiling water, and the lac solution is added

with frequent stirring. If, at any stage of this operation, the gelatine

is precipitated, a little more hot water must be added. The pint of lac

solution ought, however, to be emulsified in the gelatine solution.



To use the emulsion, it is warmed, and the paper immersed in or floated

on it for three minutes. When dry, the coated surface is floated in the

following for a couple of minutes:--



    Ammonium chloride            10 grains

    [28]Magnesium lactate        10   "



When dry, it is sensitized on a moderately strong bath (that given on

the last page will answer).



If more vigour in the resulting prints be required, it is floated on:--



    Citric acid                   5 grains

    White sugar                   5   "



This last bath improves by use, probably by the accumulation of silver

nitrate from the sensitized paper.



Any of the toning baths given in Chapter XII. will answer, though Mr.

Cooper recommends:--



    Solution of gold tri-chloride

      (1 gr. to 1 dr. of water)   2 dr.

    Pure precipitated chalk       a pinch

    Hot water                    10 ounces



2 dr. of sodium acetate are to be placed in the stock-bottle, and the

above solution filtered on to it. This is made up to 20 ounces, and is

fit for use in a few hours; but it improves by keeping.



In commencing to tone, place a few ounces of water in the dish, and add

an equal quantity of the stock solution, and if the toning begins to

flag a little, add more of it from time to time.



With the resin processes over-toning is to be carefully avoided.



Resinized paper may be obtained from most photographic dealers,

we believe, and for some purposes is an admirable substitute for

albumenized paper.









CHAPTER XX.



PRINTING ON GELATINO-CHLORIDE EMULSION PAPER.





Mr. W. T. Wilkinson has recently brought forward the notion of using

gelatine instead of albumen as a medium for holding the silver chloride

in printing. He uses the following formula:--



    Barium chloride           2,440 grains

    Gelatine                  2,000   "

    Water                        20 ounces



The gelatine is allowed to swell in the water, and, by the aid of heat,

is dissolved; the barium chloride is then added. Next he prepares--



    Silver nitrate            1,700 grains

    Water                         5 ounces



and adds this to the former, little by little, in a large bottle with

much shaking, or pours it slowly into the former in a large jar,

stirring briskly the whole time. This makes an emulsion of silver

chloride, and is used without washing. When required for use, the

gelatine, which will have set when cold, is swelled by placing the jar

containing it in hot water, and is then transferred to a dish. The dish

should be kept warm by being placed, supported on small blocks, in a tin

tray (about two inches larger in dimensions every way than the dish)

filled with hot water, the temperature of which should be about 150 deg. F.

to commence with. Saxe or Rive paper may be coated by rolling the sheet

face outwards, and placing the edge of the roll upon the gelatine. The

two corners of the paper in contact with the solution are then taken

hold of by the fingers, and raised. The paper will unroll of itself, and

take up a thin layer of the gelatine emulsion. The sheet of paper is

then suspended to dry. All these operations are, of course, conducted

in the dark room. The behaviour of the paper in the printing-frame is

precisely the same as albumenized paper, and the washing and toning are

conducted in the same way. For a fixing bath is used--



    Sodium hyposulphite           2 ounces

    Water                        20   "



The washing after fixing is more rapid than with albumenized paper. It

is washed in ten or twelve changes of water for ten minutes, and then

placed for five minutes in an alum bath made as follows:--



    Potash alum                   5 ounces

    Water                        20   "



The print is washed in a few changes of water, and the prints are ready

for drying and mounting. The advantage of the alum bath is that the

hyposulphite is destroyed into harmless products, and the gelatine is

rendered insoluble by it. In the formula given there is large excess

of chloride, and we recommend that instead of using 2,440 grains of

barium chloride, 2,050 grains be used. (Mr. Wilkinson has used that

amount of the barium salt that would be required exactly to convert

1,700 grains of silver nitrate into silver chloride, if the formula for

barium chloride were BaCl_{3} instead of BaCl_{2}.) It will be seen

that whichever formula is used, there is no silver left to combine with

the gelatine, and hence the image will be entirely formed by metallic

silver, and not an organic salt of silver.









CHAPTER XXI.



DRYING THE PRINTS.





In many establishments the prints are taken direct from the washing

water, and hung up by American clips, and thus allowed to dry. When this

is done, the prints curl up as the water leaves the paper, and they

become somewhat unmanageable. If prints have to be dried at all before

mounting--and they must, unless they are trimmed before toning--a better

plan is to make a neat heap of some fifty or sixty of the same size (say

cartes), place them on blotting-paper, and drain for a time, and then in

a screw-press (such as is used to press table-cloths, for instance) to

squeeze out all superfluous water. After a good hard squeeze the prints

should be separated, and the plan adopted by Mr. England carried out. He

has frames of light laths made, of about 6 feet by 3 feet, and over this

frame is stretched ordinary paperhanger's canvas. The prints are laid

on this to dry spontaneously, and they cockle up but very little. The

frames, being light, are easily handled. After the squeezing is done,

supposing the room in which they are placed be not very damp or very

cold, the prints will be ready for trimming and mounting in a couple of

hours. To our minds there is nothing superior to this mode of drying,

since the squeezing in the press tends to eliminate every slight trace

of hyposulphite which might be left in them.



_Trimming the Prints._--Perhaps more prints are ruined in trimming than

in any other way, when the operator is inexperienced, since it requires

judgment to know which part of the print to trim off, so that a right

balance shall be kept. In trimming landscape prints, it is impossible

to give any set rules; the judgment as to what is artistic must be the

guide. Of one thing we may be certain, that, unless the operator who

took the original negative knows exactly how to balance his picture on

the focussing-screen, the print will always bear cutting down in one

direction or the other. Such a clipping, of course, alters the size of

the print, which, if it be one of a series, will be a misfortune; but,

on the other hand, the artistic value of the individual print will be

increased.



For portraits there are some few rules which should be followed in

trimming. Always allow the centre of the face to be a little "out" from

the central line of the print, making more space on the side towards

which the sitter is looking. Allow a carte or cabinet to be cut in

such a way that, if the sitter has been leaning on something, it does

not seem as if he had been leaning on nothing. Should there be an

unintentional lean on the part of the sitter, trim the print so that he

appears in an upright position.



To trim the print, there should be the various sized shapes in glass

used. Thus there should be glasses with bevelled edges for the carte,

the cabinet, and other sizes, which can be laid on the print as a guide

to the trimming. The absolute trimming may be done either by shears

or by a knife, a leather cutters' knife being excellent, since it is

rounded, and can be brought to a keen edge very readily. When the knife

is used, the print is placed on a large glass sheet of good thickness,

the pattern placed over it, and, whilst this is held down by the left

hand, the knife is used by the right, keeping it close to the edge of

the pattern glass. When shears are used, the print is held against the

pattern glass by the left hand, and each side trimmed by one clip,

taking care to make the cut parallel to the edges of the pattern glass.

It requires a little practice to prevent clipping the glass as well as

the paper, but for small sized prints, such as the carte, the shears

have a decided advantage over the knife.



For cutting out ovals, Robinson's trimmer is an excellent adjunct to the

mounting-room, and in this case ovals stamped out of sheet brass are

used as guides.



[Illustration: _Fig._ 29.]



The figure will show the action of the trimmer. The small wheel is the

cutter, and, being pivotted, it follows the curve against which it is

held. It is better to cut out prints with this trimmer on sheet zinc

in preference to glass, the edge of the wheel being kept sharp for a

longer time than where the harder glass is used. To use the trimmer,

the print is placed on the sheet of zinc, the oval mask (or square

mask, with slightly rounded corners) is placed in position on it. The

wheel of the trimmer is brought parallel to, and against, the edge of

the mask, the handle being grasped by the right hand, the thumb to the

left, and the fingers on the right. A fairly heavy downward pressure

is brought to bear on the trimmer, and at the same time the wheel is

caused to run along the edge of the mask. The cut should be clean, and

the join perfect, if proper care be taken. It is desirable to practise

on ordinary writing paper before it is taken into use for prints. Square

masks with very slightly rounded corners can be used; the smaller the

wheel, the less curved the corners need be. It will be seen that there

is a limit to smallness of the wheel used, since, if too small, the

stirrup on which it is pivoted would rest upon the mask. The larger the

wheel the easier is the cutting.



With larger sizes than the carte or the cabinet, mounting may often

have to be delayed, since it is easier to keep a stock of unmounted

prints (say landscapes) unmounted than it is when they are mounted. In

this case the prints should be put away as flat as possible. The plan

of drying we have indicated takes out the "curl," but even then they

will not be flat enough to be handily put away. We therefore recommend

the practice of stroking the prints. A flat piece of hard wood, about

1 foot long and 1-1/2 inch broad, and the thickness of a marquoise

scale, has its edges carefully rounded off. The print is seized by one

corner in one hand and unrolled; the face of the print is brought in

contact with a piece of plate glass. The "stroker," held by the other

hand, is brought with its rounded edge on to the back of the print near

the corner held by the first hand. Considerable pressure is brought upon

the stroker, and the print is drawn through between it and the plate.

The print is then seized by another corner and similarly treated. By

this means a gloss is put upon the print, and the creases and cockles

are obliterated. The print is now ready for trimming.



It is well to have a square of glass with true edges cut to the size of

the pictures. The prints should be trimmed upon a sheet of plate glass,

a sharp penknife being used to cut them. A rough test for ascertaining

if the opposite sides are equal is to bring them together, and see if

both corners coincide.



It may sometimes be found useful to cut out a print into an oval. The

following method for tracing any ellipse may be employed:--On a thickish

piece of clean paper draw a line A B, making it the _extreme_ width of

the oval required. Bisect it at O, and draw D O C at right angles to A

B. Make O C equal to _half_ the smallest diameter of the ellipse. With

the centre C and the distance O B, draw an arc of a circle, cutting A

B in E and F. Place the paper on a flat board, and at E and F fix two

drawing-pins. Take a piece of thread and knot it together in such a

manner that half its length is equal to A F. Place the thread round the

two pins at E and F, and stretch it out to tightness by the point of a

lead pencil. Move the pencil guided by the cotton, taking care to keep

it upright. The resulting figure will be an ellipse. Modifications of

this figure may be made by making a second knot beyond the first knot,

and placing the point of the pencil in the loop formed. When the figure

has been traced in pencil on paper, it should be carefully cut out with

a sharp penknife, and placed on the print which is to be trimmed into an

oval. When so placed, a faint pencil line is run round on the print, and

the cutting out proceeds either by scissors or penknife.



[Illustration: _Fig._ 30.]









CHAPTER XXII.



MOUNTING PHOTOGRAPHS.





There are many photographers who, unfortunately, are quite indifferent

as to the medium they use in mounting the trimmed photographs. So long

as the medium will cause the adherence of the back of the print to the

cardboard employed, they are perfectly satisfied, whether it be paste

fresh or sour, or starch or gelatine in a similar condition. If any of

our readers have had the misfortune to have their rooms papered with

rancid paste, they will have noticed that the unpleasant smell attending

it has not been removed from the room for weeks, and that there is a

liability of the return of the disgusting odour when the air is at all

damp. In this case the fact that decomposition is going on is detected

by the olfactory nerves, because the quantity is considerable. It is

none the less true, however, that every square inch of the surface of

the wall paper is undergoing the same ordeal, and that if it contains

any colour, &c., which would be affected by decomposing organic matter,

there would be but small chance of the paper retaining its fresh

appearance. Were a silver print mounted with the same paste, we need

scarcely point out that danger to its permanency is to be apprehended.

Paste, we know, is as a rule tabooed, but there is no occasion for it

to be so if care be taken that it is absolutely fresh when employed in

mounting. In looking for a mounting material, we should endeavour to

find something which does not readily take up moisture. Glue, gelatine,

dextrine, and gum are all inadmissible on this account; on the other

hand, starch, arrowroot, cornflour, and gum tragacanth, when once dry,

do not seem to attract moisture.



Referring to glue, Mr. W. Brooks says[29] that he has recently seen

many photographs which have been mounted with that medium, and in

some cases, where the glue has been put on too thickly, it swells up

into ridges, showing marks of the brush with which it is applied, and

each ridge after a time turns brown. The same writer is not wholly in

favour of starch, but in our own opinion pure white starch is as good

a material as can be met with. To prepare it for use as a mountant,

a large teaspoonful of starch is placed in the bottom of a cup, with

just sufficient cold water to cover it. This is allowed to remain for

a couple of minutes, after which the cup is filled with boiling water,

and well stirred; the starch should then be fairly thick, but not

so thick as to prevent a brush taking up a proper supply for a good

sized print. We will suppose that we are going to mount a day's work

of carte-de-visite prints. In a former chapter we have said that it

is desirable that the prints should be left damp. If they are dried,

they should be _slightly_ moistened, and placed in a heap one above the

other, as by so doing the moisture is confined, and one damping of all

the prints is sufficient. In our own practice we have, as is natural,

all the prints with the faces downwards. A stiff bristle brush is then

dipped into the pot containing the starch, and the starch brushed over

the back of the top print. This one is then carefully raised from the

print beneath it, and, supposing it to have been properly trimmed, it

is laid upon the card, and pressed down by means of a soft cloth, and

placed on one side to dry. The next print is then treated in the same

manner, and so on. By this plan no starch gets on the face of the

prints, which is a desideratum. With a little practice, just sufficient

starch will be brushed on each carte, and no more. Young hands, however,

are sometimes apt to give more than a fair share to them; in this case,

after pressing the print down with the soft cloth, it may be useful to

place on the print a piece of writing paper, and press all superfluous

starch out by a rounded straight-edge, or an ivory or wooden paper

knife. The card in this case should be placed on a slab of thick glass,

so as give an even pressure. The starch, which will exude beyond the

edges of the card, should be carefully wiped off with a _clean_ cloth.



This is of course a method to be adopted only in the case of bungling

mounting, but it is useful then, and may save a carte. It should be

remembered that the less mounting medium used, the greater is the chance

of a silver print not fading.



To mount larger prints, the back should be slightly damped, and the

brush with the starch applied with cross strokes, so that every part is

covered. Particular care should be taken that the corners and edges are

not missed, since it often necessitates re-mounting the print, which is

to be avoided as far as possible, since it is a troublesome matter. The

rounded-edged ruler, and the sheet of white paper, is also useful here,

since over a large surface there is more difficulty in getting even

layers of starch, than over smaller ones. When a print has to be mounted

with a margin, the places where the top corners have to come should be

marked with a fine pencil point. By a little dexterity, the top edge of

the print, the back of which has been covered with starch in the manner

described, can be brought into the position indicated by these dots,

and be then lowered without puckers or folds. It should be remembered

that the print should just cover the pencil marks, since it is almost

impossible to erase blacklead with india-rubber, if any starch should by

accident get on it.



It is well to dry these prints under pressure, since the cardboard is

apt to cockle. A couple of boards rather longer than the prints suffice

for the purpose. The mounted prints are laid between them, a sheet

of clean blotting-paper separating each, and a few weights placed on

the top board. For prints of moderate size, a table-cloth press is an

excellent substitute.



As to the kind of mounts to be used, opinions vary. To our mind, the

simpler they are, the better they look. It is not rare to find a regular

advertisement of the photographic establishment below a carte or cabinet

print. To say the least of it, this is bad taste, and we are sure it is

bad art. If the work be good, it needs no recommendation; and if it be

bad, the less of an advertisement that appears, the better it is for

the photographer. At the back of a carte or cabinet is the place where

any advertisement should appear; but even here it may be overdone. When

we find the back of the carte got up with any amount of gold-lettering

flourishes, and no blank space on which the eye can rest without

encountering some one especial merit of the artist, we may expect to

find on the front of the card the same kind of tawdry work. It is

seldom advisable to have the mount of a white colour, though for cartes

or cabinets, in which the margin will be hidden in the album, this is

not of much consequence; but for prints in which the margin shows, it

is generally advisable to have some slight tint visible, preferably

of a cream or buff colour. There are some classes of work which will,

however, bear a white margin, but it is rarely the case; and we advise,

as a general rule, that there should be some tone on it, to prevent

its attracting the eye away from the picture by its whiteness. Black

mounts are much in vogue at the present time, and they are effective and

artistic; but chemical analysis has shown them not to be safe, since

they are enamelled with substances which are apt to induce fading. A

good and stable black mount is a desideratum, which it is to be hoped

will be found before long.



Notwithstanding our preference for starch as a mountant, we give a

method of preparing glue for the same purpose. The glue used should

be light, and as clean as possible. It should be shredded and soaked

in sufficient clean water to cover it for five or six hours; any dust

which may have adhered to it will find its way into the water. The water

should be poured off and replaced by an equal quantity of fresh. The

vessel containing it is heated over a small gas jet or spirit lamp until

solution takes place. The liquid is then thinned down with warm water

till it is of proper consistency, a point which is soon learned by a

little practice. An ordinary small glue pot will be found convenient.



It is sometimes useful to have at hand a mounting solution which will

not cockle the mount, and the late Mr. G. Wharton Simpson gave a formula

which is very good in this respect. Fine cut gelatine or shredded glue

is swollen in the least possible quantity of water, and this is boiled

with alcohol, with much stirring. If 80 grains of Nelson's No. 1 fine

cut gelatine are taken, 3 dr. of water should be used for making it, and

to it 2 oz. of alcohol be added. When cool this sets into a jelly, and

can be used by letting the bottle into which it has been transferred

stand in hot water. Prints can be mounted on foolscap paper with this

medium without any serious cockling being apparent.



It should be recollected that no two batches of paper will mount exactly

alike, some expanding more than others. It is well to mount a trial

print before doing many, to see exactly how the paper under manipulation

behaves.



_Rolling the Prints._--After the prints have been under the hands of the

retoucher, they should be rolled in a rolling-press in order to give a

brightness to the printed image. It would be invidious to point out any

particular press that should be used. Suffice it to say, there are many

excellent ones in the market. The directions for cleaning and using the

press are supplied with each machine; we therefore refrain from saying

anything about them.









CHAPTER XXIII.



DEFECTS IN PRINTS.





The bath solution is sometimes repelled by the paper, and this is found

chiefly in highly albumenized paper, and is generally caused by the

paper being too dry. Passing the sheet of paper over the steam from a

saucepan will generally effect a cure.



Small white spots, with a black central pin-point, are often met with in

prints. Dust on the paper during sensitizing will cause them, the grit

forming a nucleus for a minute bubble. All paper should be thoroughly

dusted before being floated on the sensitizing bath.



Grey, star-like spots arise from small particles of inorganic matter,

such as ferric oxide, lime, &c., which are present in the paper. They

become more apparent by decomposition during the printing operations.

They may generally be discernible by examining the paper by transmitted

light.



Bronze lines (straight) occur through a stoppage during floating the

paper in the sensitizing solution. Should the lines be irregular,

forming angles and curves, it is probable that a scum of silver oxide,

&c., may be detected on the surface of the sensitizing solution. A strip

of blotting-paper drawn across the bath will remove the cause of the

defect.



Should the print appear marbled, it may be surmised that the sensitizing

solution is weak, or that the paper has not been floated sufficiently.

In some cases it may arise from imperfect albumenizing; but in ordinary

commercial samples the cause can be easily traced.



Red marks on the shadows may appear during toning, and are very

conspicuous after fixing. They generally arise from handling the paper

with hot, moist fingers after sensitizing; greasy matter being deposited

on the surface, prevents the toning bath acting properly on such parts.



Weak prints are generally caused by weak negatives. Such can be

partially remedied by paying attention to the strength of the

sensitizing bath (see Appendix), and by using washed paper.



Harsh prints are due to harsh negatives. They can generally be remedied

by paying attention to the mode of printing, as given in Chapter IX. If

the negative be under-exposed and wanting in detail, there is, however,

no cure for this defect.



A red tone is due to insufficient toning; whilst a poor and blue tone is

due to an excess of toning.



The whites may appear yellow from imperfect washing, imperfect toning,

imperfect fixing, or from the use of old sensitized paper.



Should prints refuse to tone, either the gold has been exhausted, or

else a trace of sodium hyposulphite has been carried into the toning

bath by the fingers or other means. A trace of hyposulphite is much more

injurious to the print than a fair quantity of it. Should the toning

bath refuse to tone after the addition of gold, it may be presumed that

it is contaminated by a trace of sodium hyposulphite.



A dark mottled appearance in the body of the paper indicates imperfect

fixing, combined with the action of light on the unaltered chloride

during fixing. If the fixing bath be acid, the excess of acid combines

with the sulphur, and forms hydrosulphuric acid, which will also cause

the defect.



The cause of mealiness or "measles" in the print has been explained in

page 32.









CHAPTER XXIV.



ENCAUSTIC PASTE.





The value of an encaustic paste in improving the effect of photographic

prints has become very generally recognised amongst photographers.

A good encaustic confers three special benefits on the print: it

gives depth, richness, and transparency to the shadows; it renders

apparent delicate detail in the lights which would otherwise remain

imperceptible; and it aids in protecting the surface, and so tends to

permanency. One of the writers has in his possession prints that were

treated with an encaustic paste thirteen years ago, which retain all

their original freshness and purity, while prints done at the same time

from the same negatives have gone, to say the least of it, "off colour."



Various formulae for the preparation of encaustic pastes have been

published, and many of them very excellent. The qualities required are,

easiness of application, and the capacity of giving richness and depth

without too much gloss, and of yielding a hard, firm, permanent surface.

For a proper combination of all these qualities, nothing has ever

approached the paste of the late Adam-Salomon, of which the following is

the formula:--



    Pure white wax              500 grains

    Gum elemi                    10   "

    Benzole                     200   "

    Essence of lavender         300   "

    Oil of spike                 15   "



The wax is cut into shreds, and melted in a capsule over a water

bath. Placing it in a jar, and the latter in a pan of hot water, will

serve. Powder the elemi, and dissolve it in the solvent, using gentle

heat. Some samples of elemi are soft and tough, and will not admit of

powdering, in which case it may be roughly divided into small portions,

and placed in a bottle with the solvents. Strain through muslin, and add

the clear solution to the melted wax, and stir well. It is then poured

into a wide-mouthed bottle, and allowed to cool.



The encaustic paste is put on the prints in patches, and then rubbed

with a light, quick motion, with a piece of flannel, until a firm, fine

surface is obtained.



We give another simple formula which is efficient, though we ourselves

prefer the above.



    White wax cut into shreds     1 ounce

    Turpentine                    1   "



and thinned down, if necessary, till it has the consistency of "cold

cream."



Yet another is--



    White wax                     1 ounce

    Benzole                       2 ounces.









CHAPTER XXV.



ENAMELLING PRINTS.





There are several modes of enamelling prints, but there is none better

than that described by Mr. W. England, which we quote in his words.

"I have a glass having a good polished surface (patent plate is not

necessary), and rub over it some powdered French chalk tied up in a

muslin bag. Dust off the superfluous chalk with a camel's hair brush,

and coat with enamel collodion. I find it an improvement to add to the

collodion usually sold for the purpose 2 dr. of castor oil to the pint.

When the collodion is well set, immerse the plate in a dish of water.

When several prints are required to be enamelled, a sufficient number

of plates may be prepared and put in dishes; this will save time. Now

take the first plate, and well wash under a tap till all greasiness

has disappeared; place it on a levelling stand, and pour on as much

water as the plate will hold. Then lay the print on the top, squeeze

out all the water, and place the plate and print between several

thicknesses of blotting-paper to remove all superfluous moisture. The

plate, with the print in contact, should now be placed in a warm room

to dry spontaneously, when the print will come easily from the glass.

Care should be taken not to attempt to remove the print till quite

dry. If the pictures required to be enamelled have been dried, it

will be necessary to rub over them some ox-gall with a plug of soft

rag; otherwise the water will run in globules on the surface, and make

blisters when laid on the collodion.



"I may mention that prints done in this way lose their very glossy

surface on being mounted, but retain their brilliancy, which I think is

an improvement, as I dislike the polished surface usually given to the

print when gelatine is employed."









CHAPTER XXVI.



CAMEO PRINTS.





At one time there was a rage amongst photographers to produce cameos,

and, for this purpose, a special piece of apparatus was required to

produce the embossing. The figure will explain it.



[Illustration: _Fig._ 31.]



The print, after mounting, was enamelled by coating a plate with

collodion--as described above--and a thin film of liquid gelatine

applied. In some cases the carte itself was gelatinized, dried, and

damped, and placed in contact with the collodion film. The carte was

placed face downwards on the gelatine, and placed under pressure till

quite dry. It was then removed, and bore on its surface a high gloss

caused by the collodion. It was then ready for embossing, which was

effected by placing it in the above apparatus.



Some people like the style; and it will be seen that great variety in

it may be made by printing sufficient depth of border round the cameo;

but, for our own part, we think that, in an art point of view, they are

decidedly vulgar; and besides which, the surface of the cameo is readily

scratched, since it is raised. We only give a brief account of what has

been done in this direction, not to encourage its adoption, but rather

to caution the photographer.









APPENDIX.



REDUCTION OF OVER-EXPOSED PRINTS.





Mr. England writes as follows to the Photographic Journal, and we can

unhesitatingly say that the method of reducing an over-printed proof is

excellent.



"A simple and certain method of reducing over-printed proofs has been

one of the wants long felt by all photographers. It is well known that

in every photographic establishment even the most careful printers

cannot always be sure of getting the exact depth of tone required, and

proofs occasionally get over-printed. Of course prevention is better

than cure; but, when a remedy is necessary, the method I am about to

describe answers admirably. I tried a great many experiments before I

succeeded to my satisfaction. I found that cyanide of potassium totally

destroyed the print, even when used moderately strong. By using a weaker

solution it was well under control, and the exact depth could be readily

obtained; but during the washing to remove the cyanide the action of

the latter continued, and spoiled every proof. I then tried several

methods to arrest the action of the cyanide, but without success. It

then occurred to me to use the cyanide in such a weak state that but

little should be held in the paper, only sufficient to reduce the print

to the required depth; for this purpose I made a bath of only four drops

of saturated solution of cyanide to a pint of water. The prints immersed

at first showed no signs of getting lighter, but after about an hour

the most perfect results had been obtained with prints considerably

over-printed. With lighter pictures a less time is required. Proofs

treated in this way lose nothing of their tone during the after-washing,

which should be thoroughly done, and, when dry, retain all the

brilliancy of an ordinary print."



The plan of using cyanide has, we know, often been proposed, but with

no success until, we believe, Mr. W. Brooks gave a formula which worked

successfully with him.



Another plan, proposed by Mr. L. Warnerke, for effecting the same thing

is the use of ferric sulphate. A weak solution is prepared, and the

print immersed in it. The reduction takes place rapidly, but evenly.



We need scarcely say that it is better not to have to use either of

these remedies, by avoiding over-printing; but as mistakes will occur,

it is evident that the above will be of use at times.





UTILIZATION OF SILVER RESIDUES.



All paper or solutions in which there is silver should be saved, as it

has been proved by experience that from 50 to 75 per cent. of the whole

of the silver used can be recovered by rigid adherence to the careful

storage of "wastes."



1. All prints should be trimmed, if practicable, before toning and

fixing; in all cases these clippings should be collected. When a good

basketful of them is collected, these, together with the bits of

blotting-paper attached to the bottom end of sensitized paper during

drying, and that used for the draining of plates, should be burnt in a

stove, and the ashes collected. These ashes will naturally occupy but a

small space in comparison with the paper itself. Care should be taken

that the draught from the fire is not strong enough to carry up the

ashes.



2. All washings from prints, waters used in the preparation of dry

plates, all baths, developing solutions (after use), and old toning

baths, should be placed in a tub, and common salt added. This will form

silver chloride.



3. The old hyposulphite baths used in printing should be placed in

another tub. To this the potassium sulphide of commerce may be added.

Silver sulphide is thus formed.



4. To No. 1 nitric acid may be added, and the ashes boiled in it till

no more silver is extracted by it. The solution of silver nitrate thus

produced is filtered off through white muslin, and put aside for further

treatment, when common salt is added to it to form chloride, and added

to No. 2.



5. The ashes may still contain silver chloride. This may be dissolved

out by adding a solution of sodium hyposulphite, and adding the filtrate

No. 3.



6. No. 2, after thoroughly drying, may be reduced to metallic silver

in a reducing crucible[30] by addition of two parts of sodium carbonate

and a little borax to one of the silver chloride. These should be well

mixed together, and placed in the covered crucible in a coke fire, and

gradually heated. If the operator be in possession of one of Fletcher's

gas furnaces he can employ it economically, and with far less trouble

than using the fire. (It is supplied with an arrangement for holding

crucibles, which is useful for the purpose.) After a time, on lifting

off the cover, it will be found that the silver is reduced to a metallic

state. After all seething has finished, the crucible should be heated

to a white heat for a quarter of an hour. The molten silver should be

turned out into an iron pan (previously rubbed over with plumbago to

prevent the molten metal spirting), and immersed in a pail of water. The

washing should be repeated till nothing but the pure silver remains.



The silver hyposulphite, having been reduced to the sulphide by the

addition of the potassium sulphide, is placed in a crucible, and

subjected to a white heat; the sulphur is driven off, and the silver

remains behind.



Another method of reducing silver chloride to the metallic state is by

placing it in water slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid together

with granulated zinc. The zinc is attacked, evolving hydrogen, which, in

its turn, reduces the silver chloride to the metallic state, and forming

hydrochloric acid. After well washing, the silver may be dissolved up in

nitric acid.



Yet another method is to take sugar of milk and a solution of crude

potash, when the silver is rapidly reduced. This requires careful

washing, and it is well to heat the metal to a dull red heat to get rid

of any adherent and insoluble organic matter which may have been formed,

before dissolving it in nitric acid.





TO PRINT FROM WEAK AND HARD NEGATIVES.



Should a negative be found very hard, a slight modification of the

sensitizing solution will be found beneficial, supposing the ordinary

paper is to be used.



    Silver nitrate               30 grains

    Water                         1 ounce



The negative should in this case be printed in the sun. The more intense

the light, the less contrast there will be in the print, as the stronger

light more rapidly effects a change in the albuminate than if subjected

to weaker diffused light. The reason for the reduction in quantity of

the silver nitrate in the solution is given on page 15.



To print from a weak negative, the sensitizing solution should be:--



    Silver nitrate               80 grains

    Water                         1 ounce



The printing should take place in the shade; the weaker the negative,

the more diffused the light should be.



If a negative be dense, but all the gradations of light and shade be

perfect, the strong bath, and, if, possible, a strongly-salted paper,

should be used. The printing should take place in sunlight.





TO MAKE GOLD TRI-CHLORIDE [AU CL_{3}].



Place a half-sovereign (which may contain silver as well as copper) in a

convenient vessel; pour on it half a drachm of nitric acid, and mix with

it two-and-a-half drachms of hydrochloric acid; digest at a gentle heat,

but do not boil, or probably the chlorine will be driven off. At the

expiration of a few hours add a similar quantity of the acids. Probably

this will be sufficient to dissolve all the gold. If not, add acid the

third time; all will have been dissolved by this addition, excepting,

perhaps, a trace of silver, which will have been deposited by the

excess of hydrochloric acid as silver chloride. If a precipitate should

have been formed, filter it out, and wash the filter paper well with

distilled water. Take a filtered solution of ferrous sulphate (eight

parts water to one of iron) acidulated with a few drops of hydrochloric

acid, and add the gold solution to it; the iron will cause the gold

alone to deposit as metallic gold, leaving the copper in solution. By

adding the gold solution to the iron the precipitate is not so fine as

if added _vice versa_. Let the gold settle, and pour off the liquid;

add water, and drain again, and so on till no acid is left, testing

the washings by litmus paper. Take the metallic gold which has been

precipitated, re-dissolve in the acids as before, evaporate to dryness

on a water bath (that is, at a heat not exceeding 212 deg. F.) The resulting

substance is the gold tri-chloride. To be kept in crystals this should

be placed in glass tubes hermetically sealed. For non-commercial

purposes it is convenient to dissolve it in water (one drachm to a grain

of gold). Ten grains of gold dissolved yield 15.4 grains of the salt.

Hence if ten grains have been dissolved, 15.4 drachms of water must be

added to give the above strength.





TO MAKE SILVER NITRATE.



Silver coins are mostly alloyed with tin or copper. In both cases the

coin should be dissolved in nitric acid diluted with twice its bulk

of water. If tin be present there will be an insoluble residue left

of stannic oxide. The solution should be evaporated down to dryness,

re-dissolved in water, filtered, and again evaporated to dryness.

It will then be fit for making up a bath. If copper be present, the

solution must be treated with silver oxide.



The silver oxide thus formed is added, little by little, till the blue

or greenish colour has entirely disappeared. This will precipitate the

copper oxide from the copper nitrate, setting free the nitric acid,

which, in its turn, will combine with the silver oxide. The copper will

fall as a black powder mixed with any excess of silver oxide there may

be. Take one or two drops of the solution in a measure, and add a drachm

of water, and then add ammonia to it till the precipitate first formed

is re-dissolved. If no blue colour is apparent, the substitution of the

silver for the copper is complete; if not, more silver oxide must be

added till the desired end is attained. Distilled water must next be

added till the strength of the bath is that required. This can be tested

by the argentometer.



If to a solution of silver nitrate a solution of potash be added, a

precipitate will be formed. This is the silver oxide. The potash should

be added till no further precipitation takes place. The oxide should

be allowed to settle, the supernatant fluid be decanted off (a syphon

arrangement is very convenient), and fresh distilled water added to it.

This, in its turn, after the oxide has been well stirred, should be

decanted off. The operation should be repeated five or six times, to

ensure all nitrate of potash being absent, though its presence does not

matter for a printing bath, since this or some other nitrate is formed

when the paper is floated.





THE END.









 FOR

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 Send for my late Catalogue.









 Photographic Enlargements

 BY THE

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 The Platinotype Prints are characterized by a

 _Beautiful Tone,

     Perfection of Detail,

         Pure Whites, and

 ABSOLUTE PERMANENCE._



 By the use of the Electric Light we are enabled to proceed without

 regard to the weather, and can fill orders _promptly_ without the

 delays usually attending Solar Printing.



 Send for Price-Lists.



 THOS. H. McCOLLIN,

 _631 ARCH STREET_,

 (Dealer in all Photographic Supplies.)

 PA. PHILADELPHIA, PA.









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 P. SMITH & CO.,

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 CINCINNATI, OHIO.

 AND

 BRANCH AT

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 COLUMBUS, OHIO.



 WHERE

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     WILL FIND EVERYTHING



 =Requisite for either the WET or the DRY PLATE PROCESS.=



 _Dry Plates and Outfits in Great Variety._



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 MULLETT BROS.,

 DEALERS IN

 Photographic Supplies.

 518 WALNUT ST.,

 KANSAS CITY, MO.



 Western Photographers! look to your interests, and purchase your stock

 and apparatus at the Kansas City Stock House, thereby avoiding heavy

 freight bills and a great loss of time.



 _In addition to a full line of Photo. Supplies, we have also a large

 variety of_



 ALBUMS,

     SILK VELVET FRAMES,

         PICTURE CORD AND NAILS,

             CONVEX GLASS,

                 MATTS, ETC., ETC.



 Photographers in the East contemplating moving West will find it to

 their interests to purchase their goods here, thereby saving a great

 expense in shipping.



 Having more than doubled our capital and room, we are now able to

 compete in _price_ and _variety_ of goods with _any_ house West

 of N. Y. Send a trial order and be convinced.



 Prompt and careful attention to all orders.









 MILWAUKEE.



 GUSTAVUS BODE,

 Northwestern Photographic Warehouse

 and Chemical Laboratory,

 11 Spring St., Milwaukee, Wis.



 A FULL LINE OF

 PHOTOGRAPHIC GOODS

 AND ARTISTS' MATERIALS,



 --EMBRACING--



 _Apparatus, Chemicals, Glass,

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 English, German and American Oil Colors, and all Materials

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 SPECIALTY.



 Nitrate of Silver and Chloride of Gold made for photographic

 purposes. Gold and Silver Wastes refined. Satisfaction

 guaranteed.



 SEND FOR PRICE-LIST.









 BUFFALO

 PHOTOGRAPHIC WAREHOUSE.

 David Tucker & Co.

 Photographers' Supplies.



 410 MAIN ST. BUFFALO, N. Y.

 DAVID TUCKER.   S. B. BUTTS









 _1860 National Photographic Emporium. 1881_



 205 W. Baltimore Street,

 BALTIMORE, MD.



 RICHARD WALZL, Proprietor.



 Dry Plate Outfits a Specialty,



 All the latest novelties in connection with the improved Dry-plate

 Processes furnished at the shortest notice.



 _Any Photographer_ who wants _Lenses_, _Cameras_, _Camera Stands_,

 _Backgrounds_, _Chemicals_, _Glass_, _Albumen Paper_ or in fact _any

 Photographic Goods_, should send for our price-list and be convinced

 that it is to their interest to send their orders to us direct. A

 trial order will convince the most skeptical.



 Photography in all its Branches for the Trade.



 Expert Artists employed on the premises enable us to make this branch

 a great feature, and we can always guarantee satisfaction.



 Our Practical Photographic Publications

 are unequalled. See testimonials in _Photographer's Friend._

 Price-list sent free to any photographer.



 OUR NEW LENSES ARE THE SENSATION OF THE DAY--and the prices are so

 moderate they will astonish you. You can try our lenses before you

 buy them. If you want anything in the photographic line, address



 RICHARD WALZL, BALTIMORE, MD.









 PA. PITTSBURGH, PA.



 JOHN I. SHAW,

 _Successor to J. W. Morrison_,



 MANUFACTURER AND DEALER IN

 _Photographic Materials, Cameras, etc., etc._,



 Nos. 10 & 12 Sixth Street,

 PITTSBURGH, PA.



 _Mouldings, Albums,

     Oval, Square and Arch Top Frames,

         Velvet and Combination Frames._



 Photographic Dry Plates and Outfits for Amateurs and Professionals.



 Everything required in the practice of Photography in all its forms.



 JOHN I. SHAW, PITTSBURGH, PA.









 W. J. HAZENSTAB'S

 NEW PHOTOGRAPHIC STOCK HOUSE,

 406 Market Street, St. Louis, Mo.



 Is now opened and prepared to fill all orders for



 PHOTOGRAPHIC GOODS,

 _At Bed Rock Prices for Cash._

 _General Outfits for Galleries a Specialty._



 _Remember I Carry in Stock_:



 Am. Opt. Co's Camera Boxes and Stand,

     Success Camera Boxes,

         Sam. Peck & Co.'s Camera Boxes,

             Voigtlander & Son's Portrait Lenses,

                 Darlot's Portrait Lenses,

                     Darlot's Quick-Working Portrait Lenses,

                         Darlot's View Lenses,

 Also the Celebrated Peerless Portrait Lenses, known for their

 Rapidity and Depth.



 _And a Large Assortment of_

 CARD STOCK.



 ALSO AGENT FOR

 _CRAMER & NORDEN'S DRY PLATES,

     EASTMAN'S DRY PLATES,

         CARBUTT'S DRY PLATES_.



 Large Assortment of Frames and Mats at very low prices.



 Small Expense in carrying on my business enables me to sell for

 less money.



 --> _I Attend to All Orders Personally._ <--



 Send for Trial Order.     Price-lists sent on Application.



 WM. J. HAZENSTAB,

 _Photographers' Supply House_,



 406 Market Street, St. Louis, Mo.



 _N. B.--Remember I give 5 per cent. discount for cash on all

 orders of $10 00 or over._









 E. Weiskopf,

 Manufacturer of

 Optical Lenses,



 Specialties:

 Condensers, Cosmorama Lenses, and Magnifying Mirrors,



 No. 182 Centre Street, New York.









 NEW YORK, Oct. 10, 1881.



 _In view of the fact that the undersigned has aided in the production

 of many of the most artistic photographic pictures produced in this

 country during the last ten years, pictures which have received gold

 and silver medals at Philadelphia, London, Paris, Amsterdam and other

 cities of the world, he feels warranted in soliciting the patronage

 of photographers unacquainted with his works._



 --> _My recently introduced Backgrounds comprise those suitable for

     the stocking of a New Gallery, as well as several suitable for

     making special Exhibition pictures._



 No. ---- =Vienna Tapestry=. No. 439. =New Eastlake=.

     No. 440. =The Villa=, (_Summer_). No. 435. =The Winter Road=,

         No. 433. =The Rustic Wall=. No. 426. =The Palisades=.



 My Three-Quarter Length Backgrounds are, viz:



 _Nos. 435, 437, 438._



 _For Special Pictures_ I recommend my new _Portrait Plaques_--an

 entirely new article in Portraiture. Several Designs.



 _For suspending on Backgrounds_, ornamenting Fireplaces and Sideboards,

 my _Imitation Dutch Plaques_ are desirable and very popular.



 MY LATE ACCESSORIES ARE:



 No. 396. =The Gambier Rock=.

     No. 399. =Eastlake Fireplace and Cabinet Combined=,

         (_very rich_), =several movable parts=.

             No. 397. =The Couch and set piece=.

                 No. 414. =Seavey's Eastlake Cottage and Balcony=.

                     No. 441. =The Garden Wall=, (_3 parts_).

                         No. ---- =The New Garden Seat=, (_3 changes_).



 * . Ye Monthlie Bulletin . A.D.

 of L. W. Seavey his Workeshop. 1881



 Under the foregoing heading, in the "Specialty" columns of the several

 Photographic Journals of America, will appear from month to month brief

 announcements of my new productions.



 LAFAYETTE W. SEAVEY,

 _No. 8 Lafayette Place, NEW YORK, U. S. A._









 PHOTOGRAPHERS'

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 _VELVET GOODS._



 LOWEST PRICES.



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 AMERICAN OPT. CO.



 DRY PLATE CAMERAS,

 AND

 _GENERAL APPARATUS._



 J. C. SOMERVILLE, 1009 OLIVE STREET, _Near Scholten's Gallery_,

 ST. LOUIS, MO.









 WILSON'S

 PHOTOGRAPHICS.



 A Partial Photographic Encyclopedia.



 _By_ E. L. WILSON, _Editor "Phila. Photographer,"

 "Photo. Mosaics," etc._



 _A STANDARD BOOK for ALL Workers in Photography._



 CONTENTS.



 LESSON A. Treatment of the Subject--B. The Needful

 Apparatus--C. The Objective or Lens--D. The Dark-Room--E. Preparation

 of the Glass--F. Chemicals and Solutions--G. The Manipulations--H.

 Manipulatory Miseries--I. Retouching the Negative--J. The Glass

 Studio--K. Accessories and Light--L. Managing the Model--M. Printing

 on Albumen Paper--N. Printing on Plain Paper--O. General Remarks on

 Printing--P. Printing on Various Surfaces--Q. Printing Perplexities--R.

 Art in Printing--S. Mounting and Finishing--T. Photography Outside--U.

 Bromo-Gelatine Emulsion Work--V. Vogel's Collodion Emulsion--W.

 Enlargements and Lantern Slides--X. Phototypes, Platinotypes,

 and Collodion Transfers--Y. Wastes and Their Worth--Z. Metrical

 Measuring--&. Concluding Confab--Index (Six Pages.)



 It is believed that this is the most valuable work ever offered to the

 working photographer.



 It contains 352 pages; 7 x 8-3/4 inch cover, and is 1-1/2 inches thick.

 More than 100 illustrations. It gives full details of all practical



 Processes, Old and New, Public and Secret.



 Among the latter are the "Phototype," sometimes called the "Artotype"

 process, with examples; many of the "Lightning" processes; the

 "Platinotype" process; the "Collodion Transfer" or "Megatype" process,

 and many others.



 58 pages are devoted to Posing and Lighting; 37 pages give instructions

 in Emulsion "Dry" Work; 29 pages show how to Build and Use Skylights;

 108 pages furnish instructions for Manipulating Negatives; 37 pages

 are applied to Printing Formula and Dodges; 175 pages gives Notes from

 Authors all over the world.



 It is printed on fine white paper, made especially for it, and sold at

 the low price of



 $4 00 POST-PAID $4 00.



 For the beginner, for the amateur, for the photographic worker, it is

 believed to be most complete. No live photographer should fail to get

 it soon, before his neighbor is ahead.



 _EDWARD L. WILSON, Publisher and Proprietor_,

 Nos. 912 & 914 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa.









 DOUGLASS, THOMPSON & CO.,

 Merchants in all Requisites pertaining to the

 Art-Science of Photography,



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 229 & 231 STATE STREET,

 CHICAGO, ILL.



 A practical knowledge of the Art-Science of Photography gives us a

 special advantage in meeting the demands of the Profession.



 _Everything used in_ Silver Printing _selected with greatest care and

 guaranteed of the highest order of excellence._ =PRICES LOW=.



 All the STANDARD BRANDS of ALBUMEN PAPER we furnish

 under _genuine_ marks and at lowest prices.



 It will pay you to send for our Catalogues, Bureau of Information,

 Hints on Burnishing, etc,



 GAYTON A. DOUGLASS. }      ALL FREE.

 HENRY G. THOMPSON.  }











 ATTENTION PHOTOGRAPHERS!



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 --FOR--



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 Of Every Description,

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 The BEST is the CHEAPEST.



 Listen not to the cries of venders of worthless imitations, but

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 _Dallmeyer Lenses,

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 _Genuine N. P. A. & S. & M. Albumen Papers_,



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 _Every Requisite for the Studio and Field._



 SEND FOR ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE AND PRICE-LIST.



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 E. & H. T. ANTHONY & CO., 591 BROADWAY, NEW YORK CITY. 591









 H. EXTRA BRILLIANT.



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 Fully 2,500 reams of Morgan's Paper has been made and sold within the

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 greater quantities than the other tints. Send your orders for this brand

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 Complete Instructions accompany Each Package.



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 Manufactured only by the

 _EASTMAN DRY PLATE CO., Rochester, N. Y._



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 _WE KEEP A FULL LINE OF_



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DEALER IN



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 _Dry Plate Outfits for Amateurs & Photographers. Everything pertaining

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 Large Assortment of Frames, Convex Glass, Artists' Materials,

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 _N. B._--No charge for boxing. Your orders are solicited.



 _No. 94 Westminster Street_,

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 [Illustration: AMERICAN INSTITUTE NEW-YORK]



 HIGHEST MEDAL.



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 BACKGROUNDS

 For Everybody!



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 FLOOR CLOTHS, _painted in Oil_,

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 W. F. ASHE,

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 Photographic Stock House,



 (H. A. HYATT, Proprietor),

 NO. 411 NORTH 4th STREET,

 ST. LOUIS, MO.



 Head-quarters in St. Louis for ALL Photographers.



 We keep on hand everything new and of interest to the Fraternity, to

 be seen and examined at pleasure. Our stock is always complete and

 in keeping with the times. It embraces, with the LARGE and VARIED

 assortment of GENERAL PHOTOGRAPHIC REQUISITES, the following STANDARD

 BRANDS OF ALBUMEN PAPER, which you can always depend upon getting FRESH



 _Hovey's, Peerless,

     Eagle Brand (Dresden),

         S. & M. Dresden,

   Morgan's, Clemons,

       Trapp & Munch_,

         --ALSO--

 _Plain and Salted Papers._



 We carry the Standard Brands _only_. There is _no_ Extra we cannot

 duplicate with some REGULAR BRAND. Please remember this, and if

 you desire fair treatment, and low prices, just send us a trial order,

 note how _promptly_ we serve you, and the _quality_ of _goods_ you

 receive, and we will be assured of your future favors. Our Motto is to

 _please_, and we guarantee satisfaction.



 _--OUTFITS A SPECIALTY.--_



 Send for Illustrated Catalogue.



 H. A. HYATT, 411 North 4th Street, St. Louis, Mo.









 _Jno. G. Hood. ESTABLISHED 1865. Wm. D. H. Wilson._



 WILSON, HOOD & CO.,

 _No. 825 ARCH ST._,

 PHILADELPHIA,



 Deal in all varieties of

 PHOTO. GOODS,



 And solicit your orders, for any article you may need, including the

 following:



 _S. & M., N. P. A., & C. S. Double Alb. Paper, per ream, 35 cts.

    "        "          "    Single     "          "      25  "

 Morgan's Double Alb. Paper,                       "      34  "

   "      Single     "                             "      30  "_



 _All other brands supplied.

     Magee's Nitrate Silver, Magee's Chloride of Gold,

         Best Hypo. of Soda, keg 112 lbs. $4 48,

             American Optical Co. Printing Frames,

                 American Optical Co. Negative Boxes,

                     American Optical Co. Retouching Frames,

                         Negative Racks, Pans, Trays, etc.,

                     Waymouth's Vignette Papers, $1 00 per pack,

                             Onion Skin Paper, per dozen, 25 cts.

 Singhi's Vig. Attachment, $1 50.    Todd's Vig. Attachment, $1 50._



 "Hearn's Artistic Printing" $3 00.  "Hearn's Practical Printer" $2 50.



 _COMPLETE PRICE-LISTS FREE._



 SOLE AGENTS IN UNITED STATES

 FOR THE ROSS AND STEINHEIL LENSES.









 1878 EAGLE STOCK HOUSE. 1881



 GEORGE MURPHY, No.

 9 West Fourth Street, N. Y.



 Photo. & Ferro. Materials.



 _OUTFITS A SPECIALTY._



 All Goods sold for Cash.



 MANUFACTURER OF

 _Eagle Negative and Positive Collodions,

 Eagle Negative and Ferro. Varnishes,

 Eagle Retouching Fluid,

 Eagle Ground Glass Varnish._



 SOLE AGENT FOR

 _Hammenstede's Collodions and Varnishes,

 Photo. Chemicals of best quality._



 THE RETOUCHER'S OUTFIT:

 _Eagle New Metallic Pencil, hard,

 Eagle New Metallic Pencil, soft,

 Medium Siberian Lead,

 Artists' Holder, to fit all_,



 The most complete set offered.



 FOR THE PRINTER'S DEPARTMENT _is offered

 Eagle Photo-Printing Masks,

 English White Tissue Paper,

 Thick Yellow Paper,

 Onion-Skin Paper,

 Heavy Blotting Paper,

 Plain Papers,

 Albumen Papers of all brands_.



 Am also Agent for BRENGEL'S SALTED PAPER.



 _Emulsion and Gelatine Dry Plate Materials, Emulsion and Gelatine Dry

 Plates, best brands, Backgrounds, Chairs, Accessories, etc._



 _Bargains in Card Stock. Bargains in Apparatus, Lenses, etc._



 Domestic and Foreign CASH ORDERS Shipped Promptly.



 Four Doors West of B'way. NEW YORK.









 _ESTABLISHED IN 1802._

 FACTORIES: Waterbury, Conn., New Haven, Conn., New York City.



 Scovill Manufacturing Co.,



 MANUFACTURERS AND DEALERS IN

 ALL ARTICLES USED IN PHOTOGRAPHY,



 Warehouse, No's 419 & 421 Broome St.,

 NEW YORK.



 W. Irving Adams, Agent.



 Irving and all brands of Albumen Papers,

 Phenix Collodion,

 Phenix Varnish.

 French and other Chemicals.

 Scovill's New Solid Glass Baths, [warranted.]

 Osborne's Picturesque Foregrounds,

 American Optical Co's Celebrated Cameras,

 Dry Plates and Dry Plate Apparatus,

 Lenses,

 Parlor Paste,

 Etc., Etc., Etc., Etc.



 PUBLISHERS

 Photographic Times and American Photographer.



 Subscription price, $2 00 per annum.



 Among its contributors are the leading men in the profession.









 [FOUNDED IN 1842.]



 THE NEW ENGLAND

 Photographic Stock House.



 Largest variety in the UNITED STATES.



 Every Article required by the Amateur, Photographer, Picture

 and Frame Dealer, Frame Maker and Crayon Artist.



 SPECIALTIES.



 _Original Importers of Imitation Dallmeyer Tubes.

 Sole Agents for William's Mitering Machines.

 N. E. Agents for Bryant's Accessories.

 Sole Agents for the celebrated "Berlin Paper."

 Sole Agents for the celebrated "Gem Paper."

 Sole Agents for Burrill's Portrait Bust Pedestal.

 Sole Agent for Burrill's Neg. High Light Reducer.

 Bryant's Quick Collodion, Celebrated for Years._



 _Dry Plate Outfits for Amateurs._



 _Every Variety Dry Plate Apparatus and Materials.

 Anthony's and American Optical Co's Manufactures.

 Dallmeyer, Morrison and Voigtlander Tubes on Sale._



 C. H. CODMAN & CO.,

 [Formerly GEO. S. BRYANT & CO.,]

 34 Bromfield St., BOSTON.









 ANTHONY'S

 DRY PLATE OUTFITS



 _Most Complete Assortment in Market._



 [Illustration]



 LIGHT, PORTABLE AND INEXPENSIVE. FIRM, SUBSTANTIAL AND PRACTICAL.



 _The Lenses supplied with these are superior to those furnished by

 Any other House. Send for Descriptive Circular._



 Anthony's Patent Perfect Dry Plate-holder BEST IN THE WORLD!



 _E. & H. T. ANTHONY & CO. 591 B'way, NEW YORK._









FOOTNOTES:



[Footnote 1: Such things as test-tubes should be found in every

photographer's work room; they cost little, and are always useful for

working solutions. The sizes recommended are 3/8-inch, 1/2-inch, and

1-inch diameter. A dozen of each will not be out of the way.]



[Footnote 2:



   Sodium         Silver           Silver          Sodium

  Chloride  and   Nitrate   form  Chloride  and   Nitrate.

    NaCl     +   AgNO_{3}     =     AgCl     +    NaNO_{3}]



[Footnote 3:



                 Potassium

  Chlorine  and   Nitrite   and   Water

     2Cl     +    KNO_{2}    +   H_{2}O



give



  Hydrochloric        Potassium

      Acid      and    Nitrate

      2HCl       +     KNO_{3}



and



                   Silver

  Chlorine,       Nitrate,  and   Water

     2Cl     +    AgNO_{3}   +   H_{2}O



give



   Silver       Hydrochlorous        Nitric

  Chloride,         Acid       and    Acid.

   AgCl      +      HClO        +   HNO_{3}]





[Footnote 4: With the former we have this action--



     Silver               Silver          Liberated

    Chloride    gives  Sub-chloride  and  Chloride.

  Ag_{2}Cl_{2}    =      Ag_{2}Cl     +      Cl



With the latter the silver in combination with the organic matter, which

is in a state of oxide, is probably reduced to the state of sub-oxide.]



[Footnote 5: Sulphuretted hydrogen may be prepared by pouring dilute

sulphuric acid on ferric sulphide. The chloride or the silver compound,

when damped, may be held over it, taking care that no liquid is spirted

up on to it.]



[Footnote 6: Those who prepare collodio-albumen plates will find the

upward filtration arrangement of immense value, as bubbles are unknown

by it.]



[Footnote 7: If bubbles are seen, they must be broken, and the sheet

floated again for another minute.]



[Footnote 8: The drainings are added to the next batch of albumen which

is prepared.]



[Footnote 9: "Instruction in Photography," 4th edition, page 121.]



[Footnote 10:



                               Hydrochloric

  Chlorine  and   Water  give     acid       and  Oxygen.

     Cl      +   H_{2}O    =       HCl        +      O]



[Footnote 11:



  Nitric           Silver          Silver         Carbonic

   Acid    and   Carbonate  give  Nitrate    and    Acid   and  Water.

  2HNO_{3}  +  Ag_{2}CO_{3}   =  2AgNO_{3}    +    CO_{2}   +   H_{2}O]



[Footnote 12:



    Silver              Aluminium

   Nitrate    and    Sulphate (Alum)

  6AgNO_{3}    +    Al_{2}(SO_{4})_{3}



give



      Silver               Aluminium

     Sulphate      and      Nitrate.

  3(Ag_{2}SO_{4})   +   2Al(NO_{2})_{3}]





[Footnote 13:



    Silver        Hydrochloric         Silver

   Nitrate   and      Acid      give  Chloride  and  Nitric Acid.

   AgNO_{3}   +       HCl         =     AgCl     +     HNO_{3}]



[Footnote 14: Suppose it is salted with ammonium chloride, we have--



  Ammonium         Silver           Ammonium            Silver

  Chloride  and   Nitrate   give     Nitrate     and   Chloride.

  NH_{4}Cl   +    AgNO_{3}    =   NH_{4}NO_{3}    +      AgCl]



[Footnote 15: Several other methods are given in "Instruction in

Photography," in the Appendix.]



[Footnote 16: One part of nitric acid to 4 parts of water.]



[Footnote 17: The shutter may be made of American leather, covered over

with one quarter-inch strips of oak or well-seasoned pine. The shutter

should fit into a groove formed along the sides and bottom of the front

of the cupboard.]



[Footnote 18: In fig. 18 the fastening for only one of the pressure-bars

is given, to avoid complication.]



[Footnote 19: See "Instruction in Photography" (page 67), fourth

edition.]



[Footnote 20: For this reason, amongst others, it is desirable that

photographers should use glass for their negatives which is at least

tolerably flat.]



[Footnote 21: See "Pictorial Effect in Photography" (Piper and Carter).]



[Footnote 22: Hydrofluoric acid is always supplied by chemists in

gutta-percha bottles, as it attacks glass. A spare gutta-percha bottle

can easily be procured.]



[Footnote 23: This calculation is near enough for our purpose. There

are certain niceties which might be introduced, such as the "critical

angle of the glass."]



[Footnote 24: The boxes in which children's puzzles are often packed

will give an idea of what is meant.]



[Footnote 25:



  Silver subchloride  and  gold trichloride

       3Ag_{2}Cl       +       AuCl_{3}



give



  silver chloride  and  gold.

       6AgCl        +    Au]



[Footnote 26: "Instruction in Photography," 4th edition.]



[Footnote 27: "Instruction in Photography," 4th edition.]



[Footnote 28: Or ten minims of ammonium lactate.]



[Footnote 29: See Mr. W. Brooks' article in Photographic Almanac, 1881.]



[Footnote 30: The crucible should be of Stourbridge clay.]









Transcriber's Note:



Hyphenation, variations in spelling and inconsistent numbering of,

and references to, figures have been retained as in the original

publication.



Apart from spaces within compounds (which have been removed),

formulae have been retained as originally published, excepted

where noted below.



On page 81, symbols resembling the left- and right-hand corners of a

frame have been represented as |_ and _| as in varnish, thus |_ _|;



Changes have been made as follows:



    Page 3

    Nitric Acid _changed to_

    Potassium Nitrate



    Page 6

    If the operator carefully collect the white _changed to_

    If the operator carefully collects the white



    Page 14

    theoretical limit to amount _changed to_

    theoretical limit to the amount



    Page 19

    2AGNO_{3} _changed to_

    2AgNO_{3}



    Nitratem _changed to_

    Nitrate.



    Page 22

    AgNo_{3} _changed to_

    AgNO_{3}



    Page 23

    Ammonium Nitrate Silver Chloride _changed to_

    Ammonium Nitrate and Silver Chloride



    NH_{4},NO_{3} _changed to_

    NH_{4}NO_{3}



    AgNo_{3} _changed to_

    AgNO_{3}



    Page 40

    8 inches. _changed to_

    18 inches.



    Page 41

    printer could not hope to do it successfully. _changed to_

    printer could not hope to do it successfully."



    Page 46

    the ordinary consistency, than _changed to_

    the ordinary consistency, then



    Page 49

    enable the operator to guage _changed to_

    enable the operator to gauge



    Page 53

    centreing his imagination in _changed to_

    centring his imagination in



    Page 64

    light on B would be only four twenty-fifths _changed to_

    light on B would be only four-twenty-fifths



    Page 65

    and cut out an aperature corresponding _changed to_

    and cut out an aperture corresponding



    Page 66

    at a proper heigth from _changed to_

    at a proper height from



    Page 69

    Having discribed in the last _changed to_

    Having described in the last



    Page 70

    as it sometimes called _changed to_

    as it is sometimes called



    Page 71

    and the effect be improved.. _changed to_

    and the effect be improved.



    Page 83

    If he find that he is not _changed to_

    If he finds that he is not



    Page 87

    so dilute the reduction takes places very slowly _changed to_

    so dilute the reduction takes place very slowly



    Page 88

    common desinfecting powder _changed to_

    common disinfecting powder



    it as as well to have two _changed to_

    it is as well to have two



    Page 90

    a littler acetic acid or common salt _changed to_

    a little acetic acid or common salt



    Page 91

    must be rememberd we are _changed to_

    must be remembered we are



    Page 92

    when the sodium hypsulphite is _changed to_

    when the sodium hyposulphite is



    Page 95

    and, with a squegee _changed to_

    and, with a squeegee



    Page 101

    floated on-- _changed to_

    floated on:--



    Last page of advertisements

    BEST IN THE WORD! _changed to_

    BEST IN THE WORLD!











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